Sesame seeds: heavy on copper, light on proof

Pooling seven randomized trials, sesame changed no part of the blood lipid profile. LDL moved by a standardized 0.16 downward with a 95% confidence interval running from 0.50 lower to 0.18 higher, and HDL, total cholesterol and triglycerides were flat too. Most of the trials in that pool used sesame oil, sesamin capsules or isolated lignans instead of the seed, and the authors grade their own evidence for every lipid, and for blood pressure, as very low certainty. A second 2025 meta-analysis, in 435 adults with raised or borderline blood pressure, reported falls of 20.8 mmHg systolic and 16.3 mmHg diastolic. No food plausibly does that, and heterogeneity near 99 percent means the pooled trials were measuring different things. Those two pooled results contradict each other, so treat the blood pressure figure as an open argument inside the evidence and not as something to expect from a jar of seeds. The caution that matters on this page is not about lipids at all. Sesame is the ninth major allergen in the United States and has had to be declared on labels since 1 January 2023. In blinded oral challenges the lowest dose that triggered a reaction was 30 mg of seed.

The numbers, per 3.5 oz (100 g)

As people eat it, per 3.5 oz (100 g)

How much is actually in it

• Per 100 g dry sesame seeds carry 4.082 mg copper, which is 454 percent of the US Daily Value, plus 351 mg magnesium and 14.55 mg iron. — USDA reference entry Seeds, sesame seeds, whole, dried (FDC 170150, SR Legacy) (n = 2 dataset entries) Evidence E source
  Copper 4.082 mg (454% DV), magnesium 351 mg (84% DV), iron 14.55 mg (81% DV) per 3.5 oz (100 g); copper across the two entries 2.47 to 4.082 mg
• The US and UK food tables disagree about sesame copper by 64 percent, 4.082 against 1.46 mg per 3.5 oz (100 g), and about iron by 29 percent. — reference entries for sesame seeds in two national food composition tables (n = 2 dataset entries) Evidence E source
  Copper USDA 4.082 vs CoFID 1.46 mg/100 g (64% apart); iron 14.55 vs 10.4 mg/100 g (29% apart); magnesium 351 vs 370 mg/100 g (5% apart)

What a real portion looks like

• A cup of sesame seeds weighs 4.5 oz (128 g), but the amount US survey coding assumes when no quantity is given is 28 g. — US dietary survey portion coding for sesame seeds (n = 2 dataset entries) Evidence E source
  1 cup = 128 g; quantity not specified = 28 g

What your body absorbs

• Whole unground sesame seed, 25 g a day for four weeks, raised urinary mammalian lignan output to 65.1 to 81.0 micromol a day, the same as whole flaxseed. — healthy postmenopausal women in a randomized crossover trial, 0.88 oz (25 g) of unground whole seed in a food bar for 4 weeks per arm with 4-week washouts Evidence B source
  Urinary mammalian lignan excretion 65.1 to 81.0 micromol/day, P < 0.0001, no difference between sesame, flaxseed and the mix
• In 16 postmenopausal women 0.88 oz (25 g) of unground whole sesame seed a day was absorbed, yet over four weeks it moved nothing in plasma lipids except serum gamma-tocopherol. — 16 postmenopausal women, randomized crossover, 25 g unground sesame seed in a food bar daily for 4 weeks per arm with 4-week washouts (n = 16) Evidence B source
  Serum n-6 fatty acids up with sesame (P < 0.05), urinary lignans up (P < 0.05), serum gamma-tocopherol up (P < 0.0001), plasma lipids and antioxidant markers unchanged
• 400 mg of calcium eaten as sesame seeds produced no acute change in calcium metabolism in nine women, while the same calcium from cheese or a calcium salt did. — nine female volunteers, randomized order, single 400 mg calcium loads from Emmental cheese, milk, sesame seeds, spinach or a calcium salt with a light standard meal (n = 9) Evidence B source
  No acute calcium metabolism response after sesame seeds or spinach; cheese and calcium salt lowered intact parathyroid hormone (P = 0.002 and P = 0.007) and raised urinary calcium by 141 and 75 percent

What cooking and storage change

• Roasting costs sesame about a fifth of its phosphorus and folate and a seventh of its thiamin, while iron, magnesium, zinc and copper survive intact. — USDA retention factors for the group Nut and Seed Products, method NUTS,ROASTED Evidence E source
  Phosphorus 80 percent retained, folate 80 percent, thiamin 85 percent, riboflavin niacin and vitamin B6 95 percent, calcium iron magnesium potassium zinc and copper 100 percent

What it does to your health

• 1.4 oz (40 g) of white sesame seeds a day for 60 days lowered total cholesterol, LDL and the total to HDL ratio in 38 hyperlipidemic patients, with 240 calories removed elsewhere from the diet. — 38 hyperlipidemic patients randomized to two groups on identical drug treatment, 40 g white sesame seeds daily for 60 days with 240 calories removed from the rest of the diet (n = 38) Evidence B source
  Total cholesterol, LDL-C and TC to HDL-C ratio significantly down; TBARS down, glutathione peroxidase and superoxide dismutase up; body weight and BMI unchanged

Safety, limits and interactions

• In blinded oral food challenges, as little as 30 mg of sesame seed triggered a reaction in sensitized patients. — patients with IgE-dependent food allergy undergoing single or double blind placebo-controlled oral challenges, 12 positive sesame challenges (n = 12 positive sesame challenges) Evidence C source
  Lowest reactive threshold 30 mg of sesame seed
• In blinded oral challenges the lowest dose of sesame seed that triggered a reaction was 30 mg, and 42 percent of sesame challenges produced respiratory symptoms. — patients with IgE-dependent food allergy undergoing single or double blind placebo-controlled oral challenges, 12 positive challenges to sesame seeds among 299 positive challenges in total (n = 12 positive sesame challenges) Evidence C source
  Lowest reactive threshold 30 mg of sesame seed; respiratory symptoms in 42 percent and hemodynamic changes in 8 percent of sesame challenges; 5 of 6 sesame oil challenges positive, 0.2 and 1 tsp (1 and 5 mL) causing anaphylactic shock
• A review of 210 studies found no fatal anaphylaxis below 5 mg of allergen protein, but severe reactions below that dose were on record for sesame seeds. — 210 provocation studies and case reports on the 14 major EU food allergens, searched to 24 January 2021, with a Delphi expert consensus (n = 210 studies) Evidence C source
  No fatal reaction reported below 5 mg protein; severe reactions below 5 mg reported for eggs, fish, lupin, milk, nuts, peanuts, soy and sesame seeds
• Across the world literature aflatoxin B1 was present in 28.93 percent of sesame seed samples, and the authors' Monte Carlo modeling put consumers in nearly all studied countries at what they call unacceptable health risk. — sesame seed samples in studies indexed in Scopus, PubMed and Web of Science from 1 January 2005 to 14 December 2025, pooled by meta-analysis with Monte Carlo exposure modeling Evidence C source
  Pooled prevalence AFB1 28.93 percent, AFB2 18.09, AFG2 10.80, AFG1 9.95; mean concentration AFG1 32.290 and AFB1 28.302 microgram per kg; Margin of Exposure well below 10000 in nearly all countries, which the authors read as unacceptable health risk

What people believe that the data does not support

• Pooling seven randomized trials, sesame supplements changed no part of the lipid profile: LDL moved by a standardized 0.16 (95% CI 0.50 lower to 0.18 higher) and HDL, total cholesterol and triglycerides were flat too. — adults in randomized placebo-controlled trials of sesame products, seven trials per lipid outcome, doses from 60 mg to 40 g a day over 4 to 12 weeks (n = 144 intervention and 129 control for the lipid outcomes) Evidence A source
  HDL SMD 0.21 (95% CI -0.06 to 0.48, P = 0.121); LDL SMD -0.16 (95% CI -0.50 to 0.18, P = 0.347); total cholesterol SMD -0.22 (95% CI -0.49 to 0.05); triglycerides not significant
• Sesame is the ninth major food allergen in the United States and has had to be declared on packaged foods and supplements since 1 January 2023. — US packaged foods and dietary supplements regulated by FDA Evidence E source
  Mandatory allergen declaration from 2023-01-01; the nine major allergens are milk, eggs, fish, crustacean shellfish, tree nuts, peanuts, wheat, soybeans and sesame
• A 2026 systematic review puts IgE-mediated sesame allergy at roughly 0.1 to 0.2 percent of the population, which is why sesame is now treated as a labeling allergen rather than a rare one. — published literature on sesame nutrition, health effects and allergenicity Evidence C source
  IgE-mediated reactions in approximately 0.1 to 0.2 percent of the population

Who this works differently for

• Observational data link lower vitamin D and zinc in the blood with alopecia areata, in a 2025 meta-analysis of 34 studies with 4931 people. — patients with alopecia areata versus healthy controls, 34 papers from 16 countries (n = 4931) Evidence C source
  Serum zinc SMD -0.69 (95% CI -0.99 to -0.39); vitamin D deficiency OR 2.48 (1.47 to 4.17)
• An earlier meta-analysis of 10 studies with 764 people found lower blood zinc and selenium in alopecia areata, but no difference in iron or ferritin. — patients with alopecia areata and healthy controls (n = 764) Evidence C source
  Lower serum zinc and selenium (P < 10-4); no difference in copper, iron, ferritin, magnesium
• Among 122 children with a confirmed nut or sesame allergy, 60.7% proved allergic to more than one of peanut, tree nuts and sesame on food challenge. — children aged 0 to 16 years with at least 1 confirmed nut or sesame seed allergy, London, Geneva and Valencia (n = 122) Evidence C source
  Coexistent peanut, tree nut and sesame seed allergy 60.7% (95% CI 51.4% to 69.4%)
• A second 2025 meta-analysis, restricted to people with high or borderline blood pressure, reported falls of 20.8 mmHg systolic and 16.3 mmHg diastolic on sesame, with heterogeneity near 99 percent. — 435 adults with pre-hypertension or hypertension across trials published 2006 to 2016 in Greece, India, Japan and Thailand, sesame doses 60 to 35000 mg a day for 4 to 8 weeks (n = 435 for blood pressure) Evidence A source
  Systolic WMD -20.78 mmHg (95% CI -32.26 to -9.31); diastolic WMD -16.29 mmHg (95% CI -25.37 to -7.22); I2 98.5 and 98.7 percent
• 1.8 oz (50 g) of sesame seed powder a day for five weeks cut total cholesterol by 5 percent and LDL by 10 percent in postmenopausal women, and oxidized LDL by 23 percent. — 24 healthy postmenopausal women who completed a randomized placebo-controlled crossover trial, 50 g sesame seed powder daily for 5 weeks against 50 g rice powder (n = 24) Evidence B source
  Total cholesterol -5 percent, LDL-C -10 percent, LDL-C to HDL-C ratio -6 percent, oxidized LDL TBARS -23 percent, serum DHEAS -18 percent, all significant against placebo
• Among 122 children already allergic to at least one nut or to sesame, 60.7 percent turned out to be allergic to more than one of peanut, tree nuts and sesame on challenge. — children aged 0 to 16 years with at least one confirmed nut or sesame seed allergy in London, Geneva and Valencia, all undergoing sequential diagnostic food challenges (n = 122) Evidence C source
  Coexistent peanut, tree nut and sesame allergy in 60.7 percent (74 of 122, 95% CI 51.4 to 69.4); age over 36 months raised the odds of multiple nut allergies

What is still unknown

• A 2023 systematic review of 30 studies on nutritional treatments for hair loss found that no diet-based interventional study met its inclusion criteria. — individuals with alopecia or hair loss without known baseline nutritional deficiency; 17 RCTs, 11 non-randomized clinical studies, 2 case series (n = 30 studies) Evidence B source
  No diet-based interventional study met inclusion criteria; sesame not among the products with evidence
• Laboratory data suggest sesamin, a sesame compound, reversed hormone-driven stress signals in skin cells at 10 to 80 micromolar, with no test in people. — DHT-stimulated HaCaT keratinocytes in vitro, plus network pharmacology and docking Evidence D source
  10-80 uM sesamin reversed DHT-induced p38 phosphorylation, normalized AR expression, raised WNT10B
• A 2026 systematic review of 17 studies on diet and hair found vitamin D and iron inversely related to alopecia, with no specific food such as sesame named. — individuals aged 3 years or older, 61332 participants, 97% women (n = 61332) Evidence C source
  Higher vitamin D and iron inversely related to alopecia; alcohol and sugary drinks positively correlated with hair loss
• The authors of the largest sesame meta-analysis rate their own evidence as very low certainty for blood pressure and for every blood lipid, and only moderate for HbA1c and two inflammation markers. — GRADE profile of the 2025 dose-response meta-analysis of sesame supplementation trials Evidence A source
  Very low certainty for DBP, SBP, fasting glucose, insulin, TNF-alpha, HDL, LDL, total cholesterol, triglycerides, MDA and TAC; low for body fat, BMI, weight, waist to hip ratio and HOMA-IR; moderate for hip and waist circumference, HbA1c, CRP and IL-6

The bottom line

Whole seed at a real dose is a separate question from a capsule. In 24 postmenopausal women, 1.8 oz (50 g) of sesame seed powder a day for five weeks cut total cholesterol by 5 percent, LDL by 10 percent and oxidized LDL by 23 percent against rice powder. That is around 300 calories of seed, roughly double the 28 g that US survey coding assumes when no quantity is recorded. In 38 hyperlipidemic patients on unchanged drug treatment, 40 g a day for 60 days lowered total cholesterol, LDL and the total to HDL ratio. That trial took 240 calories out of the rest of the diet, so replacement is part of what was measured, and the abstract gives direction and significance without effect sizes or confidence intervals. At 25 g a day for four weeks in 16 postmenopausal women the seed was absorbed, urinary lignan output reached 65.1 to 81.0 micromol a day, and plasma lipids did not move. Grinding is not needed for that absorption to happen. Per 100 g the dried seed carries 4.082 mg of copper, 454 percent of the Daily Value, which comes to about 127 percent on the 28 g that coders default to. The UK table gives 1.46 mg per 3.5 oz (100 g) under the same name, 64 percent away from the US figure, a gap too wide for method error and most likely hulled seed against unhulled. Roasting is gentle by the USDA retention table, which is dated 1975 and written for the whole roasted nut and seed group rather than for sesame by name: iron, magnesium, zinc and copper survive intact, while phosphorus and folate lose about a fifth. Calcium is the exception to the mineral story. In nine women a single 400 mg calcium load from sesame produced no acute change in calcium metabolism, while the same load from cheese or a calcium salt lowered parathyroid hormone and raised urinary calcium by 141 and 75 percent. The caution that matters most on this page is allergy. Sesame became the ninth major allergen in the United States and has had to be declared on packaged food and supplements since 1 January 2023. In blinded oral challenges the lowest dose that triggered a reaction was 30 mg of seed, a threshold built on twelve positive sesame challenges that describes the most sensitive patient rather than a typical one. Respiratory symptoms appeared in 42 percent of those challenges, and five of the six challenges to sesame oil in the same series were positive, with 0.2 and 1 tsp (1 and 5 mL) causing anaphylactic shock. A review of 210 provocation studies and case reports found no fatal reaction below 5 mg of allergen protein, and sesame sits on its list of allergens that have caused severe reactions below that dose. A 2026 review puts IgE-mediated sesame allergy at roughly 0.1 to 0.2 percent of people, without naming the source of that figure. Among 122 children at three European clinics who were already allergic to a nut or to sesame, 60.7 percent reacted to more than one of peanut, tree nuts and sesame on challenge. That is a share among already allergic children and not a population rate. Aflatoxin B1 was present in 28.93 percent of sesame samples across the world literature, and the authors modeled exposure as leaving consumers in nearly all the studied countries at what they call unacceptable health risk, with margins of exposure well below the 10000 threshold. The sampled countries were led by Nigeria, Egypt and Pakistan, so the number does not carry over to European retail. No randomized trial has tested whole sesame seed against a hard clinical endpoint, and we found nothing on the kidneys and nothing on how the allergy threshold changes with a child age.

Sources

1. sesd-daily-r3-01 · food composition dataset
   copper 4.082 mg 454% DV · from 2 records 2.47–4.082
   USDA FoodData Central, SR Legacy, FDC 170150 · checked 2026-09-25
2. sesd-daily-r3-02 · food composition datasets
   copper USDA 4.082 / CoFID 1.46 mg difference 64% ← DISCREPANCY
   USDA FoodData Central SR Legacy FDC 170150 and CoFID 2021, Public Health England, OGL v3.0, code 14-844 · checked 2026-09-25
3. sesd-daily-r3-04 · dietary survey portion dataset
   1 cup · 10205 128
   USDA FNDDS, food code 43103000, FDC 2707586 · checked 2026-09-25
4. sesd-daily-r3-05 · randomized crossover trial
   In a randomized crossover study, healthy postmenopausal women supplemented their diets with the bars for 4 wk each separated by 4-wk washout periods, and urinary mammalian lignan excretion was measured at baseline and after 4 wk as a marker of mammalian lignan production. Results showed an increase with all treatments (65.1-81.0 mumol/day; P < 0.0001), which did not differ among treatments.
   Nutr Cancer, 2005 · checked 2026-09-25
5. sesd-daily-r3-06 · randomized crossover trial
   In a randomized crossover study, 16 postmenopausal women supplemented their diets with food bars containing either 25 g unground flaxseed, sesame seed, or their combination (12.5 g each) (flaxseed+sesame seed bar, FSB) for 4 wk each, separated by 4 wk washout periods. ... In conclusion, fatty acids and lignans from unground seed in food bars are absorbed and metabolized; however, except for serum GT, the 25 g unground seed is inadequate to induce changes in plasma lipids and several biomarkers of oxidative stress.
   Mol Nutr Food Res, 2009 · checked 2026-09-25
6. sesd-daily-r3-07 · randomized crossover meal study
   Four hundred milligrams calcium from either Emmental cheese, milk, sesame seeds, spinach, or calcium salt (calcium lactate gluconate + calcium carbonate) or no additional calcium (control session) were given to nine female volunteers immediately after a first blood sample (at 0900) in random order with a light standardized meal containing 37 mg Ca. ... Our results show that calcium from sesame seeds and spinach does not cause an acute response in calcium metabolism.
   Am J Clin Nutr, 1997 · checked 2026-09-25
7. sesd-daily-r3-03 · nutrient retention factor table
   phosphorus_mg 80% 20%
   USDA Table of Nutrient Retention Factors, Release 6 (2007), Retn_Code 2203 · checked 2026-09-25
8. sesd-daily-r3-11 · randomized controlled trial
   This study was designed to investigate the effects of sesame on reducing serum lipids and enhancing antioxidant capacity in 38 hyperlipidemic patients who were divided into two groups randomly. ... Intervention group patients were supposed to eat 40 g white sesame seeds daily, and instead of these calories, 240 kcal was removed from their diet. ... The results showed that the diet with sesame significantly decreased the levels of serum total cholesterol (TC) and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) and TC/HDL-C ratio.
   Int J Food Sci Nutr, 2012 · checked 2026-09-25
9. ev-seshair-06 · controlled oral food challenge
   The lowest reactive threshold has been observed at less than 2 mg of egg; 5 mg of peanut, 0.1 mL of milk and 30 mg of sesame seed.
   Clin Exp Allergy, 2003 · checked 2026-10-07
10. sesd-daily-r3-13 · controlled oral food challenge
    Data from 125 positive oral challenges to egg, 103 to peanut, 59 to milk and 12 to sesame seeds were analysed. ... The lowest reactive threshold has been observed at less than 2 mg of egg; 5 mg of peanut, 0.1 mL of milk and 30 mg of sesame seed.
    Clin Exp Allergy, 2003 · checked 2026-09-25
11. sesd-daily-r3-14 · position paper with systematic review
    In the 210 studies included, in our search, no reports of fatal anaphylactic reactions reported below 5 mg protein ingested were identified. However, in provocation studies and case reports, severe reactions below 5 mg were reported for the following allergens: eggs, fish, lupin, milk, nuts, peanuts, soy, and sesame seeds.
    Allergy, 2022 · checked 2026-09-25
12. sesd-daily-r3-15 · meta-analysis of contamination surveys
    The pooled prevalence order was AFB1 (28.93%) > AFB2 (18.09%) > AFG2 (10.80%) > AFG1 (9.95%), while concentration order was AFG1 (32.290 µg/kg) > AFB1 (28.302 µg/kg) > AFB2 (3.183 µg/kg) > AFG2 (0.131 µg/kg). ... Monte Carlo simulation indicated consumers in nearly all studied countries face unacceptable health risk, with MOE values well below 10,000.
    Mycotoxin Res, 2026 · checked 2026-09-25
13. sesd-daily-r3-08 · meta-analysis of RCTs
    The analysis of seven studies examining the effect of sesame supplements on HDL concluded that no significant effect was observed (SMD = 0.21; 95% CI − 0.06, 0.48; P = 0.121). ... The meta-analysis showed no substantial impact on LDL (SMD = − 0.16; 95% CI − 0.50, 0.18; P = 0.347), with moderate heterogeneity observed among these studies (I2 = 50%, P = 0.062).
    Nutrition & Metabolism, 2025 · checked 2026-09-25
14. sesd-daily-r3-12 · agency labeling rule
    As of January 1, 2023, sesame must be labeled as an allergen on packaged foods and dietary supplements.
    US FDA, FASTER Act: Sesame as the Ninth Major Food Allergen · checked 2026-09-25
15. sesd-daily-r3-17 · systematic review
    However, despite its widespread culinary and industrial applications, sesame has emerged as a growing allergenic concern, eliciting IgE-mediated reactions in approximately 0.1-0.2 % of the population.
    Food Chem, 2026 · checked 2026-09-25
16. ev-seshair-03 · meta-analysis of observational studies
    Vitamin D deficiency was strongly associated to an elevated risk of AA (OR = 2.48, 95% CI = 1.47-4.17, p < 0.05).
    J Cosmet Dermatol, 2025 · checked 2026-10-07
17. ev-seshair-04 · meta-analysis of observational studies
    However, there was no significant difference between the AA patients and controls in the levels of serum copper (P = 0.81), serum iron (P = 0.36), serum ferritin (P = 0.37) and serum magnesium (P = 0.07).
    J Dermatol, 2017 · checked 2026-10-07
18. ev-seshair-07 · prospective cohort
    Overall, the rate of coexistent peanut, tree nut, and sesame seed allergy was 60.7% (n = 74/122; 95% CI, 51.4% to 69.4%).
    J Allergy Clin Immunol, 2020 · checked 2026-10-07
19. sesd-daily-r3-09 · meta-analysis of controlled trials
    Participant ages in intervention groups ranged from 35 to 60 years, with sesame doses varying from 60 to 35,000 mg/day over intervention durations of 4 to 8 weeks. ... Based on our findings, the incorporation of sesame as a dietary supplement conferred significant beneficial effects on DBP (WMD, −16.29 mmHg; 95% CI, −25.37 to −7.22; P < 0.001; I2 = 98.7%; P heterogeneity < 0.001) (Supplementary Fig. 2) and SBP (WMD, −20.78 mmHg; 95% CI, −32.26 to −9.31; P < 0.001; I2 = 98.5%; P heterogeneity < 0.001).
    Clinical Hypertension, 2025 · checked 2026-09-25
20. sesd-daily-r3-10 · randomized crossover trial
    Twenty-six healthy subjects attended, and 24 completed, this randomized, placebo-controlled, crossover study. Half of them consumed 50 g sesame seed powder daily for 5 wk, followed by a 3-wk washout period, then a 5-wk 50-g rice powder placebo period. ... After sesame treatment, plasma total cholesterol (TC), LDL-C, the ratio of LDL-C to HDL-C, thiobarbituric acid reactive substances in oxidized LDL, and serum dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate decreased significantly by 5, 10, 6, 23, and 18%, respectively.
    J Nutr, 2006 · checked 2026-09-25
21. sesd-daily-r3-16 · prospective multicentre prevalence study
    Overall, the rate of coexistent peanut, tree nut, and sesame seed allergy was 60.7% (n = 74/122; 95% CI, 51.4% to 69.4%).
    J Allergy Clin Immunol, 2020 · checked 2026-09-25
22. ev-seshair-01 · systematic review
    No diet-based interventional studies met inclusion criteria.
    JAMA Dermatol, 2023 · checked 2026-10-07
23. ev-seshair-02 · in vitro study
    Cell assays revealed that 10-80 µM sesamin reversed DHT-induced p38 phosphorylation, normalized AR expression, down-regulated pro-apoptotic BAX, restored anti-apoptotic BCL2, and elevated WNT10B.
    Scientific Reports, 2026 (Li et al.) · checked 2026-10-07
24. ev-seshair-05 · systematic review
    Higher levels of vitamin D and iron were inversely related to alopecia.
    Nutr Health, 2026 · checked 2026-10-07
25. sesd-daily-r3-18 · GRADE assessment
    The quality of evidence was reported very low for DBP, SBP, FBS, Insulin, TNF-a, HDL, LDL, TC, TG, MDA, and TAC and was reported low for BF, BMI, Weight, WHR, and HOMA-IR except for HC, WC, HbA1c, CRP, and IL-6 that was moderate.
    Nutrition & Metabolism, 2025 · checked 2026-09-25