Moose: very lean meat, with lead and organs to watch

By a meta-analysis of 13 randomized trials, heme iron, given mostly as a low-dose supplement, raised hemoglobin 1.06 g/dL (95% CI 0.34 to 1.78) more than non-heme iron in children with anemia or low iron stores, at very low certainty. Other groups showed no difference. That is the strongest study near moose, and it was not about moose. The meat itself is lean. A single USDA record puts raw moose at 102 calories, 22 g protein and 0.74 g fat per 3.5 oz (100 g), with 3.2 mg iron and 2.8 mg zinc. A typical 85 g cooked serving gives about 113 calories, 25 g protein, 3.6 mg iron and 5.3 mcg vitamin B12, recomputed from 100 g. The question that matters most is the bullet. In Norway, 52 batches of ground moose from animals shot with lead-based bullets averaged 5.6 mg/kg lead, 56 times the EU limit for meat, and 81% had lead above the 0.03 mg/kg limit of quantification, in ground meat taken near the wound channel. Lead-free ammunition avoids the problem.

The numbers, per 3.5 oz (100 g)

As people eat it, per 3.5 oz (100 g)

How much is actually in it

• Raw moose meat has about 102 calories, 22 g protein and under 1 g fat per 3.5 oz (100 g), with 3.2 mg iron and 2.8 mg zinc. — USDA SR Legacy food 174344, Game meat, moose, raw (n = 1 food record) Evidence E source
  Per 100 g raw: energy 102 calories, protein 22.24 g, fat 0.74 g, saturated fat 0.22 g, cholesterol 59 mg, iron 3.21 mg, zinc 2.8 mg, selenium 9.6 ug, niacin 5 mg, sodium 65 mg
• Roasting concentrates moose meat as water is lost: per 3.5 oz (100 g), protein rises from 22 to 29 g and iron from 3.2 to 4.2 mg. — USDA SR Legacy foods 174344 (raw) and 174345 (cooked, roasted) (n = 2 food records) Evidence E source
  Raw vs roasted per 3.5 oz (100 g): water 75.55 vs 67.83 g; energy 102 vs 134 calories; protein 22.24 vs 29.27 g; iron 3.21 vs 4.22 mg; zinc 2.8 vs 3.68 mg; roasted B12 6.31 ug
• Braised moose liver is far denser than the meat, with about 71 ug vitamin B12, 2.8 mg copper and 389 mg cholesterol per 3.5 oz (100 g). — USDA SR Legacy food 167609, Moose, liver, braised (Alaska Native) (n = 1 food record) Evidence E source
  Per 100 g: energy 155 calories, protein 24.38 g, cholesterol 389 mg, iron 6.77 mg, zinc 6.07 mg, copper 2.789 mg, riboflavin 4.1 mg, vitamin B12 71 ug

What a real portion looks like

• A typical US serving of cooked moose (85 g) gives about 113 calories, 25 g protein, 3.6 mg iron and 5.3 ug vitamin B12. — US household measures, FNDDS (n = 1 food code) Evidence E source
  85 g: 113 calories, 24.7 g protein, 0.8 g fat, 3.56 mg iron, 3.10 mg zinc, 5.32 ug B12; 1 cup 135 g: 180 calories, 39.2 g protein, 5.66 mg iron

What your body absorbs

• By a meta-analysis of 13 RCTs, heme iron raised hemoglobin by about 1.06 g/dL more than non-heme iron in children with anemia or low iron stores, with very low certainty. — 13 randomized controlled trials comparing heme with non-heme iron in non-hospitalized groups (n = 13 RCTs) Evidence A source
  Hemoglobin MD +1.06 g/dL (95% CI 0.34 to 1.78) in children with anemia; no difference in other groups; side effects RR 0.62 (0.40 to 0.96)
• In an 8-week RCT in 52 iron-deficient women, taking an iron supplement with 4 oz (113 g) of beef gave no better iron status than with plant-based meat. — 52 non-pregnant women of reproductive age with serum ferritin below 25 ug/L, 32 mg iron daily with a lunch containing 113 g beef or Beyond Meat for 8 weeks (n = 52) Evidence B source
  Ferritin +10.7 ug/L and hemoglobin +0.5 g/dL over time in both arms; treatment-by-time interaction P > 0.05

What cooking and storage change

• An Alaska outbreak of Shigella gastroenteritis was traced to moose soup made in homes and served at a gathering: 17 of 19 sick attendees had eaten it vs 11 of 22 controls. — Galena, Alaska, 1991 community gathering; 25 case-patients and 58 controls (n = 83) Evidence C source
  17/19 case-patients vs 11/22 controls ate moose soup; 10 culture-confirmed Shigella sonnei
• CDC says wild game meat must be cooked to an internal temperature of at least 165°F (74°C) to kill Trichinella parasites, and freezing game meat might not be sufficient. — people who eat wild game meat Evidence E source
  Internal temperature of at least 165°F (74°C) kills Trichinella, freezing might not be sufficient

What it does to your health

• By a network meta-analysis of 36 RCTs, replacing red meat with plant protein lowered LDL cholesterol by about 7.3 mg/dL (0.19 mmol/L), so red meat's effect depends on what it replaces. — 36 randomized controlled trials comparing red meat diets with diets replacing it (n = 36 RCTs) Evidence A source
  Plant protein vs red meat: LDL-C MD -7.3 mg/dL (-0.19 mmol/L) (95% CrI -0.36 to -0.03); TC -0.14 mmol/L; certainty very low to low

Safety, limits and interactions

• A meta-analysis of 170 studies found Salmonella, STEC, Listeria, Yersinia and Campylobacter in meat of hunted wild ungulates, with STEC more common in ruminants such as deer and moose. — 46 publications, 170 studies, 223 prevalence estimates of bacterial pathogens in game meat of hunted ungulates, 2004-2024 (n = 170 studies) Evidence C source
  Pathogens present; STEC more prevalent in ruminant game meat; high heterogeneity

Who this works differently for

• In a northern Canadian community, the highest cadmium levels in traditional foods were in moose and caribou liver and kidney, and about 20% of residents may eat these organs often. — residents of Fort Resolution, Northwest Territories; 24-h recalls, food-use frequency and cadmium analysis of about 30 wild species Evidence C source
  Cadmium 0 to 1869 ug/g wet weight, highest in moose kidney; average traditional-food cadmium 6-9% of the WHO PTWI
• Ground moose meat from animals shot with lead bullets in Norway averaged 5.6 mg/kg lead, 56 times the EU limit for meat. — 52 batches of ground moose meat from animals killed with lead-based bullets, Norway; intake modeled by Monte Carlo (n = 52 samples) Evidence C source
  81% of batches above the 0.03 mg/kg limit of quantification, up to 110 mg/kg; mean 5.6 mg/kg; median weekly intake 12 ug/kg bw at one serving a week, 25 ug/kg bw at two
• In Quebec, moose shot with lead ammunition averaged 0.17 mg/kg lead, and eating it three times a week was predicted to expose 3.3% of children to a dose tied to a 1-point IQ loss. — 37 moose and 35 white-tailed deer meat samples from Quebec hunters, plus a hunter consumption survey; Monte Carlo simulation (n = 72 samples) Evidence C source
  Moose mean 0.17 mg/kg; at 1, 2, 3 servings a week 0.9%, 1.9%, 3.3% of children above the 1-point IQ dose and 0.5%, 0.9%, 1.5% of adults above the 1 mmHg SBP dose
• In rural northern Norway, people identifying as Sami ate more reindeer and moose meat and less lean fish and vegetables than non-Sami neighbors. — 4504 adults aged 40-69 in ten rural municipalities, SAMINOR 2 Clinical Survey 2012-2014 (n = 4504) Evidence C source
  Sami diets contained more reindeer meat, moose meat, blood foods and freshwater fish
• NIH names liver, without singling out any species, as one of the richest sources of preformed vitamin A, which matters if moose liver is eaten. NIH sets the upper limit for preformed vitamin A, counting food and supplements together, at 600 mcg a day for children aged 1 to 3 and 3,000 mcg for adults, and warns that intakes above it can cause birth defects. — children by age band, adults, and women who are or might be pregnant or are lactating Evidence E source
  UL for preformed vitamin A from food plus supplements: 600 mcg to age 3, 900 mcg at 4-8, 1,700 mcg at 9-13, 2,800 mcg at 14-18, 3,000 mcg from 19 (pregnancy and lactation included); intakes above the UL can cause birth defects of the eye, skull, lungs and heart

What is still unknown

• A review of 65 game-meat processing records found freezing does not control all hazards, such as freeze-resistant Trichinella nativa, and that cooking is rarely tested specifically on game meat. — 65 records on decontamination or inactivation of pathogens in processed game meat (n = 65 records) Evidence D source
  Refrigeration and freezing miss some hazards; curing limited against STEC and parasites; thermal processing under-studied for game meat

The bottom line

Lead is the first caution, and children are the group most exposed in the models. In Quebec, 37 moose shot with lead ammunition averaged 0.17 mg/kg lead. A model with no blood lead measured predicted that eating moose three times a week would expose 3.3% of children to a dose tied to a 1-point IQ loss and 1.5% of adults to one tied to a 1 mmHg rise in systolic pressure. The Norwegian work names children and women of child-bearing age as the groups of special concern. Organs are the second caution. In a 1998 study of one northern Canadian community, cadmium in traditional foods ranged up to 1869 mcg/g wet weight, highest in moose kidney, and the liver and kidney of moose and caribou carried the most. Braised moose liver in a single Alaska Native record has about 71 mcg vitamin B12, 2.8 mg copper and 389 mg cholesterol per 3.5 oz (100 g). That record does not report vitamin A, and our cards hold nothing on moose liver in pregnancy, so that silence is a gap rather than a clean bill. Handling is the third. A meta-analysis of 170 studies found Salmonella, STEC, Listeria, Yersinia and Campylobacter in meat of hunted wild hoofed animals, with STEC more common in ruminants, and the abstract gives no pooled prevalence. A review of 65 game-meat processing records found that freezing does not control all hazards, such as freeze-resistant Trichinella nativa, so freezing is not a substitute for cooking. The same review notes that heat is well known to inactivate a broad range of pathogens, and that what is rarely tested is cooking specifically on game meat. Our cards do not yet hold an official safe internal cooking temperature for game meat. In Alaska in 1991, a Shigella outbreak was traced to moose soup made in homes for a gathering, eaten by 17 of 19 case-patients and 11 of 22 controls, and the contamination came from food handlers and storage, not from the moose meat itself. We have no card on medicines. Roasting raises the numbers per 3.5 oz (100 g) only because water leaves, so protein goes from 22 to 29 g and iron from 3.2 to 4.2 mg. A network meta-analysis of 36 randomized trials found that replacing red meat with plant protein lowered LDL by 7.3 mg/dL (0.19 mmol/L) (95% credible interval 0.03 to 0.36), at very low to low certainty, in trials mostly of beef and pork. None tested moose alone. In an 8-week trial in 52 iron-deficient women, a 32 mg iron supplement taken with a lunch of 4 oz (113 g) beef gave no better ferritin or hemoglobin than the same supplement with plant-based meat, and moose was not tested.

Sources

1. moos-r2-01 · reference dataset
   SR Legacy 174344 Game meat, moose, raw, per 100 g: Energy 102 kcal · Protein 22.24 g · Total fat 0.74 g · Saturated fat 0.22 g · Cholesterol 59 mg · Iron 3.21 mg · Zinc 2.8 mg · Selenium 9.6 ug · Niacin 5 mg · Sodium 65 mg
   USDA SR Legacy 2019, FDC 174344 · checked 2026-10-02
2. moos-r2-02 · reference dataset
   SR Legacy 174344 Game meat, moose, raw: Water 75.55 g · Protein 22.24 g · Iron 3.21 mg · Zinc 2.8 mg; SR Legacy 174345 Game meat, moose, cooked, roasted: Water 67.83 g · Protein 29.27 g · Iron 4.22 mg · Zinc 3.68 mg · Vitamin B12 6.31 ug
   USDA SR Legacy 2019, FDC 174345 · checked 2026-10-02
3. moos-r2-03 · reference dataset
   SR Legacy 167609 Moose, liver, braised (Alaska Native), per 100 g: Energy 155 kcal · Protein 24.38 g · Cholesterol 389 mg · Iron 6.77 mg · Zinc 6.07 mg · Copper 2.789 mg · Riboflavin 4.1 mg · Vitamin B12 71 ug
   USDA SR Legacy 2019, FDC 167609 · checked 2026-10-02
4. moos-r2-04 · reference dataset
   FNDDS 2705917 Moose (code 23323100): portions 1 cup 135 g · Quantity not specified 85 g; per 100 g Energy 133 kcal · Protein 29.04 g · Total lipid 0.96 g · Iron 4.19 mg · Zinc 3.65 mg · Vitamin B-12 6.26 ug
   USDA FNDDS 2021-2023 · checked 2026-10-02
5. moos-r2-05 · meta-analysis
   The meta-analysis showed higher hemoglobin increases in children with anemia or low iron stores receiving HI (MD 1.06 g/dL; 95% CI: 0.34; 1.78; CoE: very low). No statistically significant difference between interventions were found for any iron status indicator in the other population subgroups (CoE: very low).
   Eur J Nutr, 2024 · checked 2026-10-02
6. moos-r2-06 · randomized trial
   Daily consumption of an iron supplement with a lunch meal for 8 wk improved serum ferritin concentrations (main time effect: +10.7 ± 9.6 μg/L, P < 0.0001), transferrin saturation (main time effect: +5.1% ± 18.7%, P = 0.048), soluble transferrin receptor (main time effect: -0.6 ± 1.0 mg/L, P < 0.001), body iron stores (main time effect: +2.8 ± 3.1 mg/kg, P < 0.0001), and hemoglobin (main time effect: +0.5 ± 0.9 g/dL, P = 0.0002) regardless of whether the meals contained Animal or Plant (treatment-by-time interaction: P > 0.05 for all indicators).
   Am J Clin Nutr, 2025 · checked 2026-10-02
7. moos-r2-11 · case-control study
   Among persons who attended the gathering and from whom we obtained a food consumption history, 17 of 19 case-patients and 11 of 22 controls ate moose soup. No other foods served at the gathering were associated with illness. Ten case-patients had culture-confirmed Shigella sonnei.
   West J Med, 1994 · checked 2026-10-02
8. sf-game-r2-2 · agency advice
   Cooking wild game meat to an internal temperature ≥165°F (≥74°C) is necessary to kill Trichinella spp. parasites. ... Cooking game meat to a safe internal temperature (≥165°F [≥74°C]) will kill Trichinella spp. and prevent infection, whereas freezing might not be sufficient
   CDC MMWR, Notes from the Field: Suspected Outbreak of Trichinellosis Associated with Undercooked Bear Meat, North Carolina, November 2023 (2024) · checked 2026-10-08
9. moos-r2-07 · network meta-analysis
   Consuming plant proteins resulted in a greater reduction in total cholesterol (TC) levels (mean difference (MD) = -0.14; 95 % credible interval (CrI): -0.28 to -0.001, p < 0.05) and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) levels (MD = -0.19; 95 % CrI: -0.36 to -0.03, p < 0.05) compared to red meat interventions.
   Clin Nutr, 2025 · checked 2026-10-02
10. moos-r2-12 · meta-analysis of prevalence
    Pathogen occurrence was generally higher in meat from suids, except for STEC, which was more prevalent in the game meat of ruminants. Although many strains appeared to have lower pathogenic potential compared with those typically implicated in human disease, the presence of specific virulence-associated genes, serogroups, and sequence types linked to human infections indicates that game meat may act as a potential source of infection.
    Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf, 2026 · checked 2026-10-02
11. moos-r2-08 · risk assessment
    The range of cadmium concentrations measured was 0 to 1869 micrograms/g wet weight, with the lowest found in cranberry, and the highest in moose kidney. Cadmium concentrations in traditional food groups were comparable with those of Canadian market food. Highest levels of cadmium were found in the liver and kidney of caribou and moose.
    Food Addit Contam, 1998 · checked 2026-10-02
12. moos-r2-09 · exposure assessment
    In 81% of the batches, lead levels were above the limit of quantification of 0.03 mg kg(-1), ranging up to 110 mg kg(-1). The mean lead concentration was 5.6 mg kg(-1), i.e. 56 times the European Commission limit for lead in meat.
    Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess, 2012 · checked 2026-10-02
13. moos-r2-10 · exposure assessment
    Mean lead levels in white-tailed deer and moose killed by lead ammunition were 0.28 and 0.17 mg kg(-1) respectively. ... For consumers of moose meat once, twice or three times a week, simulations predicted that 0.5%, 0.9% and 1.5% of adults would be exposed to a dose associated with a 1 mmHg increase in SBP, whereas 0.9%, 1.9% and 3.3% of children would be exposed to a dose associated with 1 point intelligence quotient (IQ) decrease, respectively.
    Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess, 2015 · checked 2026-10-02
14. moos-r2-14 · cross-sectional study
    The diet of Sami participants contained more reindeer meat, moose meat, food made with animal blood and freshwater fish; and contained less lean fish and vegetables.
    Public Health Nutr, 2018 · checked 2026-10-02
15. sf-vita-r4-2 · agency advice
    Concentrations of preformed vitamin A are highest in liver, fish, eggs, and dairy products [1]. ... The FNB has established ULs for preformed vitamin A that apply to both food and supplement intakes [5]. The FNB based these ULs on the amounts associated with an increased risk of liver abnormalities in men and women, teratogenic effects, and several toxic effects in infants and children. ... Birth to 12 months 600 mcg 600 mcg 1–3 years 600 mcg 600 mcg 4–8 years 900 mcg 900 mcg 9–13 years 1,700 mcg 1,700 mcg 14–18 years 2,800 mcg 2,800 mcg 2,800 mcg 2,800 mcg 19+ years 3,000 mcg 3,000 mcg 3,000 mcg 3,000 mcg ... Total intakes of preformed vitamin A that exceed the UL as well as some retinoid medications used as topical therapies (such as isotretinoin, used to treat severe acne, and etretinate, a treatment for severe psoriasis) can cause congenital birth defects [1]. These birth defects can include malformations of the eye, skull, lungs, and heart [14]. Experts advise women who are or might be pregnant and those who are lactating not to take high doses (more than 3,000 mcg RAE [10,000 IU] daily) of vitamin A supplements [1].
    NIH Office of Dietary Supplements, Vitamin A and Carotenoids Fact Sheet for Health Professionals · checked 2026-10-08
16. moos-r2-13 · systematic review
    Refrigeration and freezing are commonly employed preservation methods but they may not control all hazards, including freeze-resistant parasites (e.g., Trichinella nativa) and psychrotrophic bacteria capable of growing at low temperatures. ... Although thermal processing is well known to achieve broad-spectrum pathogen inactivation, its systematic evaluation as a controlled intervention specifically for game meat remains limited in the scientific literature.
    Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf, 2026 · checked 2026-10-02