Duck: a dark bird whose fat sits in the skin

The strongest human trial on this page never served duck. In 113 healthy adults who spent four weeks on each of three diets, LDL cholesterol and apoB ran higher on red meat and on white meat than on non-meat protein, and red and white meat did not differ from each other. The white meat there was chicken and turkey, so the fattier bird was not tested. What has been measured on duck itself is the carcass. British food tables put raw duck meat with skin and fat at 388 calories and 37.3 g fat per 3.5 oz (100 g), and the meat alone at 137 calories and 6.5 g fat. Roast skinless duck lands at 195 calories, 10.4 g fat, 25.3 g protein and 2.7 mg iron per 3.5 oz (100 g), while roast meat with skin sits at 423 calories and 38.1 g fat. Those are four separate analyzed records rather than a retention factor measured through one oven, and what separates them is the skin. Between the two roast records the skin accounts for 228 calories and 27.7 g fat per 3.5 oz (100 g).

The numbers, per 3.5 oz (100 g)

As people eat it, per 3.5 oz (100 g)

How much is actually in it

• In the British table raw duck meat with skin and fat has 37.3 g fat and 388 calories per 3.5 oz (100 g) against 6.5 g fat and 137 calories for meat only. Roasting the skinless meat concentrates it to 10.4 g fat, 25.3 g protein and 2.7 mg iron. — CoFID 2021 (Public Health England, OGL v3.0): Duck, raw, meat, fat and skin (18-371); Duck, meat only, raw (18-489); Duck, roasted, meat only (18-372); Duck, roasted, meat, fat and skin (18-374) (n = four CoFID records) Evidence E source
  Raw with skin: 388 calories, 37.3 g fat, 13.1 g protein, 1.3 mg iron; raw meat only: 137 calories, 6.5 g fat, 19.7 g protein, 2.4 mg iron, 3.0 ug B12; roasted meat only: 195 calories, 10.4 g fat, 25.3 g protein, 2.7 mg iron; roasted with skin: 423 calories, 38.1 g fat
• USDA lists raw duck liver at 11,984 micrograms of vitamin A per 3.5 oz (100 g), all of it as retinol, with 30.5 mg iron, 54 micrograms vitamin B12, 6.0 mg copper and 515 mg cholesterol. — USDA SR Legacy record Duck, domesticated, liver, raw Evidence E source
  Per 100 g: retinol 11984 ug (vitamin A RAE 11984 ug), iron 30.53 mg, vitamin B12 54 ug, copper 5.962 mg, folate DFE 738 ug, cholesterol 515 mg, protein 18.74 g, fat 4.64 g, 136 calories

What a real portion looks like

• In FNDDS one ounce of cooked Peking duck is 28 g and a cup of diced cooked duck 140 g, with 85 g as the default portion when the amount is not stated. — US household measures, FNDDS: Duck, Peking (fdc_id 2706141, WWEIA Turkey, duck, other poultry) (n = one FNDDS food) Evidence E source
  1 oz cooked 28 g; 1 cup diced cooked 140 g; quantity not specified 85 g

What your body absorbs

• Iron-rich foods including chicken or duck blood and pork liver eaten 3 days a week through pregnancy cut iron deficiency from 22.8% to 9.0% and iron-deficiency anemia from 8.9% to 1.9% at the 40 mg iron a day dose in 170 Chinese women. — 240 pregnant women recruited at 11-13 weeks without anemia, South China, 170 analyzed, single-blind, three arms (n = 170 analyzed (240 randomized)) Evidence B source
  IRF-40: ID (SF <12) 9.0% vs 22.8% (P = 0.022), IDA 1.9% vs 8.9% (P = 0.045); IRF-20: IDA 3.9% vs 17.9%; no effect on Hb or hepcidin
• Across 77 studies of the meat factor, adding muscle tissue to a plant-based meal steadily raised iron and zinc absorption, with no clear difference between red meat, poultry and fish. No absorption study in that review used duck. — 77 articles (52 in humans, 24 in animal models, 1 both) published to September 2021 (n = 77 studies) Evidence C source
  Direction: muscle tissue increases iron and zinc absorption from single plant meals; whole-diet effect less clear; milk and egg show no meat factor

What cooking and storage change

• After a catered event, 58% of 77 guests fell ill, and cooked duck liver pate prepared the same way at the venue grew Campylobacter jejuni and C. coli, pointing to under-cooked pate as the cause. — 77 guests at a catered event, retrospective cohort, 45 clinical cases, 4 confirmed Campylobacter (n = 77) Evidence C source
  Attack rate 45/77 (58.4%); duck liver pate RR 2.53 (95% CI 1.05-6.10) univariate; venue pate samples contaminated
• A 75-year-old woman had anaphylaxis to duck and goose eggs while tolerating hen's eggs, with prick tests positive to raw but not cooked duck egg white. — one 75-year-old woman without atopic history (n = 1) Evidence D source
  Selective Anseriformes egg allergy; raw duck and goose egg white positive, cooked negative; hen's egg tolerated on challenge
• USDA FSIS says whole duck is safe at an internal temperature of 165 °F (74 °C) even if still pink in the center, and notes that all duck meat is dark with a fat layer under the skin. — US consumers, FSIS food safety guidance Evidence E source
  Safe minimum internal temperature 165 °F; pink center acceptable at that temperature; all meat dark

What it does to your health

• Across 13 prospective studies with 1.4 million people, poultry intake showed no association with ischemic heart disease, while unprocessed red meat carried 9% and processed meat 18% higher risk per 50 g a day. — 1,427,989 adults in 13 prospective cohort articles, 32,630 IHD cases, searched to June 2021 (n = 1,427,989) Evidence C source
  Unprocessed red meat RR 1.09 per 50 g/d (1.06-1.12); processed meat 1.18 (1.12-1.25); poultry no association (10 studies)
• In 31 cohorts with 1.97 million adults, each 100 g a day of poultry was linked to an 8% higher rate of type 2 diabetes, a weaker and less stable signal than for red or processed meat. — 1,966,444 adults in 31 cohorts from 20 countries, 107,271 incident cases, median follow-up 10 years (n = 1,966,444) Evidence C source
  Poultry HR 1.08 per 100 g/d (95% CI 1.02-1.14, I2 68%); unprocessed red meat 1.10 per 100 g/d; processed meat 1.15 per 50 g/d
• Across 22 prospective cohorts, the highest versus lowest white meat intake was associated with 6% lower all-cause mortality and no change in cardiovascular death or events. — adults in 22 prospective cohort studies published to April 2020 (n = 22 studies) Evidence C source
  All-cause mortality OR 0.94 (0.90-0.97); CV mortality 0.95 (0.89-1.01); non-fatal CV events 0.99 (0.95-1.02)

Safety, limits and interactions

• Roasted duck served by a company canteen in Guangdong in 2013 carried both Vibrio parahaemolyticus and norovirus from one asymptomatic food handler and sickened 99 staff. — 99 staff of one company, Guangdong, China, May 2013 (n = 99 cases) Evidence C source
  Mixed outbreak, single asymptomatic handler as source, poor hygiene as amplifier
• Pooled across 131 studies, Campylobacter was found in 51.9% of poultry product samples, making poultry the primary food vehicle for campylobacteriosis. — cross-sectional food sampling studies, 131 articles, worldwide (n = 131 studies) Evidence C source
  Poultry products 51.9% (95% CI 47.0-56.7); vegetable products 43.3%; ready-to-eat foods 5.5%
• A review of 30 studies from 17 countries found mercury above regulatory limits (0.02 to 0.05 mg/kg) in poultry meat or eggs in 12 countries, with eggs and liver the tissues most often measured. — 30 studies of mercury in poultry meat and eggs across 17 countries, five poultry species (n = 30 studies) Evidence C source
  Levels above USDA/NHC/Thai limits in 12 of 17 countries; highest in chicken eggs from Colombia

What people believe that the data does not support

• In 113 healthy adults eating red meat, white meat or non-meat protein for 4 weeks each, LDL cholesterol and apoB were higher on both meats than on non-meat and did not differ between red and white meat, so poultry brought no lipid advantage over beef. — 113 healthy adults aged 21-65 (61 high-SFA arm, 52 low-SFA arm), crossover of three 4-week protein diets, USA (n = 113) Evidence B source
  LDL-C and apoB higher with red and white meat than non-meat (P < 0.0001); red vs white meat no difference; high SFA raised LDL-C (P = 0.0003)
• The Nordic Nutrition Recommendations 2023 scoping review found no sufficient evidence that poultry protects against any chronic disease and judged effects on cardiovascular disease, stroke and type 2 diabetes in either direction unlikely. — systematic reviews and meta-analyses on meat and chronic disease, graded with modified AMSTAR 2 and WCRF criteria Evidence E source
  Poultry: no protective effect shown; CVD, stroke, T2D effects regarded as unlikely; processed meat and red meat: probable CVD risk

Who this works differently for

• Near a Chinese e-waste site, duck liver supplied 18% of residents' dioxin-like PCB intake, third after freshwater fish and shellfish, in a diet that exceeded the FAO/WHO tolerable intake. — local residents and e-waste workers (lactating mothers), Taizhou, China, food basket analysis (n = food basket survey) Evidence C source
  Dietary PCB intake 92.79 ng/kg/d; WHO-PCB-TEQ sources: freshwater fish 40%, shellfish 24%, duck liver 18%, rice 12%
• In 202 labial food challenges in 142 allergic children, duck provoked a reaction in a single case against 75 for egg white and 60 for peanut. — 142 children with suspected food allergy, France, 202 labial food challenges over two years (n = 202 challenges) Evidence C source
  Egg white 75, peanut 60, mustard 23, cow's milk 13, cod 8, chicken 3, duck 1
• EFSA in 2024 kept the upper limit for preformed vitamin A at 3,000 micrograms a day for adults, set to prevent birth defects, and it applies to pregnant and breastfeeding women too. — EU population; adults including women of child-bearing age, pregnant and lactating women Evidence E source
  UL 3000 ug RE/day for adults from all sources, based on a NOAEL for teratogenicity
• EFSA advises women who are planning a pregnancy or are pregnant not to eat liver, offal or products made from them, because preformed vitamin A can harm the embryo. — women planning pregnancy and pregnant women, EU Evidence E source
  General recommendation: do not consume liver, offal or products thereof (SCF 1992, 2002, maintained 2024)
• WHO says Campylobacter infections are usually mild but can be fatal in very young children, older people and people with weakened immunity, and can be followed by reactive arthritis or Guillain-Barre syndrome. — people with campylobacteriosis, worldwide; very young children, elderly and immunosuppressed named as at risk of death Evidence E source
  Named groups at risk of fatal infection; post-infection reactive arthritis and Guillain-Barre syndrome in a small number of cases
• The American Academy of Pediatrics names Campylobacter jejuni among foodborne bacteria whose infections can be life-threatening in older adults, infants, young children and pregnant women, where miscarriage can occur. — older adults, infants, young children, pregnant women and their fetuses, healthy or immunocompromised (US policy statement on raw milk) Evidence E source
  Life-threatening infection and fetal miscarriage named as possible outcomes; no rates given

What is still unknown

• A scoping review of 525 articles on poultry and health found that most only assess poultry indirectly against red meat or plant protein, with no randomized trials of processed poultry and little to show poultry itself is health promoting. — 525 articles on poultry intake and human health, 366 observational, 64 experimental, 76 reviews (n = 525 articles) Evidence C source
  Mapping only: 212 on cancer, 41 on CVD morbidity and mortality, 32 on T2D; 83% in adults

The bottom line

In US survey measures an ounce of cooked duck is 28 g, a cup of diced cooked duck 140 g, and 85 g is the default when the amount is not stated. Whole duck is safe at an internal temperature of 165 F, 74 C, and the US food safety agency adds that the meat can still be pink at that temperature because all of it is dark. The part with an outbreak record attached to it is the liver. After one catered event 45 of 77 guests met the case definition, duck liver pate carried a relative risk of 2.53 with a wide interval of 1.05 to 6.10, and pate prepared the same way at the same venue afterward grew Campylobacter jejuni and C. coli. That sampling is the stronger part of the evidence, because almost every guest had eaten the pate and the statistics had little to work with. Across 131 sampling studies Campylobacter turned up in 51.9 percent of poultry product samples, with no breakdown by bird. Roasted duck at a Guangdong canteen sickened 99 staff in 2013, though the source was a single asymptomatic food handler carrying both Vibrio parahaemolyticus and norovirus, which makes the handling rather than the bird the vehicle. WHO describes Campylobacter infection as usually mild but able to kill very young children, older people and people with weakened immunity, and notes that reactive arthritis or Guillain-Barre syndrome can follow in a small number of cases. The American Academy of Pediatrics, writing about raw milk, adds pregnant women to the groups in whom Campylobacter jejuni infection can be life-threatening and miscarriage can occur. For the long run, every number comes from cohorts that lump duck in with chicken. Poultry showed no association with ischemic heart disease across 13 prospective studies and 1.4 million people. Higher white meat intake went with 6 percent lower all-cause mortality across 22 cohorts, OR 0.94 with an interval of 0.90 to 0.97. Each 100 g a day of poultry went with 8 percent higher type 2 diabetes, HR 1.08 from 1.02 to 1.14, which the authors call weaker under other modeling assumptions. Those are associations among people who differ in many ways, and not effects anyone has produced on purpose. The Nordic recommendations of 2023 found no sufficient evidence that poultry protects against any chronic disease, and a map of 525 articles found no randomized trial of poultry itself. Duck is a rare allergen in the clinic, causing 1 of 202 labial challenges in 142 French children referred for suspected allergy, against 75 for egg white. Duck egg is a separate question. One 75-year-old woman who had anaphylaxis to duck and goose egg while tolerating hen egg tested positive on skin to raw but not cooked duck egg white, which is a single case and says nothing about how often this happens. Two contaminant findings sit on the record. A review of 30 studies across 17 countries found mercury above the regulatory limits of 0.02 to 0.05 mg/kg in poultry meat or eggs in 12 of them, without reporting duck apart from other birds. Near a Chinese e-waste site, duck liver supplied 18 percent of residents dioxin-like PCB intake, third after freshwater fish and shellfish, which describes that place and not duck liver anywhere else. The iron holds up better than the rest. Roast skinless duck carries 2.7 mg per 3.5 oz (100 g), and a review of 77 studies found muscle tissue steadily raising iron and zinc absorption from plant-based meals, with no clear difference between poultry, red meat and fish. The pregnancy trial in which iron deficiency fell from 22.8 to 9.0 percent fed women a package of pork liver, chicken or duck blood, soybean and agaric, so the duck share of that result cannot be separated out. That package is not advice to eat liver in pregnancy. Raw duck liver holds 11,984 micrograms of vitamin A per 3.5 oz (100 g) in a single USDA record, all of it as retinol. EFSA sets the upper limit for adults at 3,000 micrograms a day, to prevent birth defects, and applies it to pregnant and breastfeeding women. EFSA advises women who are planning a pregnancy or are pregnant not to eat liver, offal or products made from them, which takes in duck liver and duck liver pate.

Sources

1. duck-c4-17 · reference dataset
   CoFID 18-371 Duck, raw, meat, fat and skin | Energy 388 kcal | Fat 37.3 g | Protein 13.1 g | Iron 1.30 mg || 18-489 Duck, meat only, raw | Energy 137 kcal | Fat 6.5 g | Protein 19.7 g | Iron 2.40 mg | Vitamin B12 3.0 ug || 18-372 Duck, roasted, meat only | Energy 195 kcal | Fat 10.4 g | Protein 25.3 g | Iron 2.70 mg || 18-374 Duck, roasted, meat, fat and skin | Energy 423 kcal | Fat 38.1 g
   CoFID 2021 (Public Health England, OGL v3.0), codes 18-371, 18-489, 18-372, 18-374 · checked 2026-09-23
2. sf-duck-hf2-1 · food composition table
   Duck, domesticated, liver, raw, FDC 174467 (sr_legacy): Retinol 11984 UG, Vitamin A, RAE 11984 UG, Iron 30.53 MG, Vitamin B-12 54 UG, Copper 5.962 MG, Folate, DFE 738 UG, Cholesterol 515 MG, Protein 18.74 G, Total lipid (fat) 4.64 G, Energy 136 KCAL per 100 g
   USDA FoodData Central, SR Legacy (2018-04), FDC 174467 Duck, domesticated, liver, raw · checked 2026-10-08
3. duck-c4-18 · reference dataset
   Duck, Peking | 1 oz, cooked 28 g | 1 cup, diced, cooked 140 g | Quantity not specified 85 g
   USDA FNDDS (Food and Nutrient Database for Dietary Studies), fdc_id 2706141 · checked 2026-09-23
4. duck-c4-01 · RCT
   The IRFs were consumed 3 days a week, including pork liver, chicken/duck blood, soybean, and agaric...Specifically, IRF-40 showed a lower ID (SF <12 ng/mL) rate than control (9.0% compared with 22.8%, P = 0.022). For IDA by definition 1, the incidence in IRF-40 was lower than that in control (1.9% compared with 8.9%, P = 0.045).
   J Nutr, 2022 · checked 2026-09-23
5. duck-c4-08 · scoping review
   The addition of muscle tissue and muscle tissue fractions to single plant-based meals steadily increased absorption of iron and zinc across studies. The efficacy of the meat factor in increasing iron and zinc absorption in the overall diet is less clear. No clear differences emerged between red meat, poultry, and fish in promoting the meat factor effect.
   Adv Nutr, 2022 · checked 2026-09-23
6. duck-c4-09 · cohort
   The attack rate was 45/77 (58·4%) by clinical case definition, with four individuals confirmed to have Campylobacter...consumption of duck liver pâté [relative risk (RR) 2·53, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1·05-6·10]...Samples of cooked duck liver pâté subsequently prepared using identical methods at the venue were contaminated with Campylobacter jejuni and C. coli
   Epidemiol Infect, 2014 · checked 2026-09-23
7. duck-c4-14 · case report
   We report the case of a 75-year-old woman with no history of atopic disease who experienced episodes of anaphylaxis after consuming duck and goose eggs, while tolerating hen's eggs...Prick-to-prick testing showed positive reactions to raw duck and goose egg white, whereas results were negative for cooked duck and goose eggs and for both raw and cooked hen's and quail eggs.
   Allergol Select, 2026 · checked 2026-09-23
8. duck-c4-16 · agency advice
   USDA recommends cooking whole duck or goose to a safe minimum internal temperature of 165 °F as measured using a food thermometer...even though it may still be pink in the center, it should be safe...Because all the meat on a duck or goose is dark
   USDA FSIS, Duck and Goose from Farm to Table · checked 2026-09-23
9. duck-c4-03 · meta-analysis of cohorts
   Higher consumption of unprocessed red meat was associated with a 9% (relative risk (RR) per 50 g/day higher intake, 1.09; 95% confidence intervals (CI), 1.06 to 1.12; nstudies = 12) and processed meat intake with an 18% higher risk of IHD (1.18; 95% CI, 1.12 to 1.25; nstudies = 10). There was no association with poultry intake (nstudies = 10).
   Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr, 2023 · checked 2026-09-23
10. duck-c4-04 · meta-analysis of cohorts
    Greater consumption of each of the three types of meat was associated with increased incidence of type 2 diabetes, with HRs of 1·10 (95% CI 1·06-1·15) per 100 g/day of unprocessed red meat (I2=61%), 1·15 (1·11-1·20) per 50 g/day of processed meat (I2=59%), and 1·08 (1·02-1·14) per 100 g/day of poultry (I2=68%)...The findings for poultry consumption were weaker under alternative modelling assumptions.
    Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol, 2024 · checked 2026-09-23
11. duck-c4-05 · meta-analysis of cohorts
    When comparing the highest versus the lowest consumption of white meat, the pooled OR and pertinent 95% CI were 0.94 (0.90, 0.97, p < 0.001) for all-cause mortality, 0.95 (0.89, 1.01, p = 0.13) for CV mortality, and 0.99 (0.95, 1.02, p = 0.48) for non-fatal CV events.
    Nutrients, 2021 · checked 2026-09-23
12. duck-c4-10 · outbreak investigation
    We reported a mixed outbreak of Vibrio parahaemolyticus and norovirus causing acute gastroenteritis in 99 staff members of a company in Guangdong, China, in May 2013, following consumption of roasted duck, an uncommon non-seafood vehicle for such mixed infection, in one meal served in the company's catering service.
    PLoS One, 2015 · checked 2026-09-23
13. duck-c4-11 · meta-analysis of prevalence studies
    From the meta-analysis conducted at a 95% confidence interval, Campylobacter was highly prevalent in poultry products (51.9% [47.0-56.7]) and vegetable products (43.3% [17.9-68.7]), but least prevalent in ready-to-eat foods (5.50% [-0.31-11.3]).
    Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr, 2026 · checked 2026-09-23
14. duck-c4-12 · systematic review of surveys
    Levels above those permitted by regulatory organizations such as the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), China's National Health Commission (NHC), and Thailand's Ministry of Public Health - set at 0.05, 0.05, and 0.02 mg.kg-1 respectively - were observed in 12 of the 17 countries, with the highest concentrations detected in chicken eggs from Colombia.
    Biol Trace Elem Res, 2026 · checked 2026-09-23
15. duck-c4-02 · RCT crossover
    LDL cholesterol and apoB were higher with red and white meat than with nonmeat, independent of SFA content (P < 0.0001 for all, except apoB: red meat compared with nonmeat [P = 0.0004])...Primary outcomes did not differ significantly between red and white meat.
    Am J Clin Nutr, 2019 · checked 2026-09-23
16. duck-c4-07 · scoping review
    There was also no sufficient evidence to conclude on protective effect of poultry on any chronic diseases; effects on the risk of CVD, stroke, and T2D, to any direction, were regarded as unlikely.
    Food Nutr Res, 2024 · checked 2026-09-23
17. duck-c4-13 · cross-sectional survey
    With regards to WHO-PCB-TEQ values, freshwater fish (40%), shellfish (24%), duck liver (18%) and rice (12%) were the main dietary sources with total daily intake (9.78 pg WHO-PCB-TEQ kg(-1)d(-1)), exceeding the FAO/WHO Tolerable Daily Intake (70 pg TEQkg(-1)body(-1)wt(-1)month(-1)).
    Chemosphere, 2010 · checked 2026-09-23
18. duck-c4-15 · case series
    The foods provoking reactions were egg white (75 cases), peanut (60 cases), mustard (23 cases), cow's milk (13 cases), cod (8 cases), kiwi fruit, shrimp (4 cases each), chicken, peanut oil (3 cases each), hazel nuts (2 cases), and snails, apple, fennel, garlic, chilli peppers, pepper, and duck (1 case each).
    Pediatr Allergy Immunol, 1997 · checked 2026-09-23
19. sf-duck-hf2-2 · agency risk assessment (UL)
    The Panel proposes to retain the UL of 3000 μg RE/day for adults, based on a NOAEL for teratogenicity (Section 3.7.1.1). This UL applies to men and women, including women of child‐bearing age, pregnant and lactating women, and post‐menopausal women.
    EFSA NDA Panel, Scientific opinion on the tolerable upper intake level for preformed vitamin A and beta-carotene, EFSA Journal 2024;22(6):e8814 · checked 2026-10-08
20. sf-duck-hf2-3 · agency recommendation
    Since both acute and chronic intakes of preformed vitamin A and the timing of consumption by pregnant women (i.e. during embryogenesis) may be critical for teratogenicity (Section 3.6.1), the Panel maintains the general recommendation for women who are planning to become pregnant or who are pregnant not to consume liver, offal or products thereof (SCF, 1992, 2002).
    EFSA NDA Panel, Scientific opinion on the tolerable upper intake level for preformed vitamin A and beta-carotene, EFSA Journal 2024;22(6):e8814 · checked 2026-10-08
21. sf-duck-hf2-4 · agency fact sheet
    Campylobacter infections are generally mild, but can be fatal among very young children, elderly, and immunosuppressed individuals. ... Post-infection complications may include reactive arthritis (painful inflammation of the joints which can last for several months) and neurological disorders such as Guillain-Barré syndrome, a polio-like form of paralysis that can result in respiratory and severe neurological dysfunction in a small number of cases.
    World Health Organization, Campylobacter fact sheet, 1 May 2020 · checked 2026-10-08
22. sf-duck-hf2-5 · professional body policy statement
    Raw milk and milk products from cows, goats, and sheep continue to be a source of bacterial infections attributable to a number of virulent pathogens, including Listeria monocytogenes, Campylobacter jejuni, Salmonella species, Brucella species, and Escherichia coli O157. These infections can occur in both healthy and immunocompromised individuals, including older adults, infants, young children, and pregnant women and their unborn fetuses, in whom life-threatening infections and fetal miscarriage can occur.
    Pediatrics, 2014 · checked 2026-10-08
23. duck-c4-06 · scoping review
    A paucity of research exists to support poultry as health-promoting foods, with most research only indirectly assessing poultry intake compared with other foods of interest (e.g., red meats or plant-based protein foods). No randomized controlled trials and only 1% of OBS assessed the influence of processed poultry intake on human health.
    Adv Nutr, 2022 · checked 2026-09-23