Sparkling water: plain water with bubbles and a small, early snacking signal

The best trial on sparkling water is modest in both size and result. In a randomized, open-label trial of 45 Japanese adults with a BMI between 23 and 30, drinking 17 fl oz (500 ml) of carbonated water a day for 12 weeks cut snacking by 1.49 times a week compared with still water (95% CI 2.93 to 0.05 fewer). The authors call the study exploratory. The bubbles do register in the body. In 13 young women, 8.5 fl oz (250 ml) of carbonated water raised fullness ratings over plain water, a short test with no food intake measured. In 32 young adults, sparkling water at breakfast left people hungrier than juice, milk or cola, yet they ate the same lunch after all four. As a drink it is close to nothing: 0 calories and about 21 mg sodium per 3.5 oz (100 g) in USDA survey data, so a 17 fl oz (500 ml) bottle gives about 107 mg sodium, from one composite value that differs by brand and source water.

How much is actually in it

• Plain carbonated water has 0 calories and about 21 mg sodium per 3.5 oz (100 g) in USDA survey data, so a 17 fl oz (500 ml) bottle gives about 107 mg sodium and 25 mg calcium. — USDA FNDDS 2021-2023, food code 92410210 Water, carbonated, plain (n = 1 food code) Evidence E source
  Per 100 g: 0 calories, sodium 21 mg, calcium 5 mg; per 360 g can: sodium 75.6 mg, calcium 18 mg; per 507 g bottle: sodium 106.5 mg, calcium 25.4 mg

What your body absorbs

• In a crossover study of 8 healthy volunteers, carbonated water did not change how fast a meal left the stomach but kept more of it in the upper stomach, 74% of solids against 56% with still water. — 8 healthy volunteers, radiolabelled mixed meal with carbonated or still water (n = 8) Evidence B source
  Overall gastric emptying identical; proximal stomach solids 74% vs 56%, liquids 43% vs 27%
• A meta-analysis of 4 absorption studies found calcium from calcium-rich mineral waters was absorbed at least as well as calcium from dairy products. — 4 experimental studies comparing calcium absorption from mineral water and dairy (n = 4 studies) Evidence C source
  Absorption from mineral water higher than from dairy, pooled p = 0.03, no effect size given

What it does to your health

• In a 12-week RCT of 45 Japanese adults, 500 g a day of carbonated water cut body weight by 1.6 lb (0.72 kg) more than still water. — healthy Japanese adults aged 20-64 years with BMI 23.0 to under 30.0 (n = 45) Evidence B source
  Body weight -1.6 lb (95% CI -3 to -0.15; metric: -0.72 kg, -1.37 to -0.07); BMI -0.26 kg/m2 (-0.50 to -0.02); snacking -1.49 times/week (-2.93 to -0.05) at week 12
• In a crossover trial of 30 adults, more carbonation in a sweet drink raised fullness and cut lunch intake, with no effect on the rest of the day. — non-obese subjects (fifteen women, fifteen men) (n = 30) Evidence B source
  Medium (2.5 volumes) and high (3.7 volumes) vs low (1.7 volumes) carbonation in a 14 fl oz (400 ml) sugar-sweetened preload: higher satiety and lower lunch intake (P < 0.05); no effect after lunch
• In 10 healthy adults, 10 fl oz (300 ml) of a calorie-free carbonated drink before a meal enlarged the stomach but did not change how many calories they ate. — ten healthy subjects (4 women, aged 22-30 years; BMI 23 ± 1) (n = 10) Evidence B source
  Total intake at maximum satiety, solid meal: water 783, still drink 837, carbonated 774 calories (no difference)
• In a crossover trial of 13 young women, 8.5 fl oz (250 ml) of carbonated water raised fullness and lowered hunger compared with plain water. — thirteen young women after an overnight fast (n = 13) Evidence B source
  Significantly higher fullness and lower hunger after carbonated water; also transiently after carbonated sham-feeding
• In 8 healthy volunteers, carbonated water did not change how fast the stomach emptied a meal, only where the meal sat in the stomach. — eight healthy volunteers (n = 8) Evidence B source
  Identical solid and liquid emptying; proximal stomach solids 74% vs 56% with carbonated vs still water
• In a crossover trial of 13 young women, 8.5 fl oz (250 ml) of carbonated water raised fullness and lowered hunger compared with plain water, an effect traced to CO2 in the mouth. — young women after an overnight fast, 8.5 fl oz (250 ml) at 15 C (n = 13) Evidence B source
  Significantly increased fullness and decreased hunger ratings after carbonated water vs water
• In a 12-week trial of 45 Japanese adults, 17 fl oz (500 ml) of carbonated water a day cut snacking by 1.49 times a week and body weight by 1.6 lb (0.72 kg) compared with still water. — 45 healthy Japanese adults aged 20-64 with BMI 23 to under 30, 500 g carbonated water daily for 12 weeks (n = 45) Evidence B source
  Snacking -1.49 times/week (95% CI -2.93 to -0.05), alcohol -24.44 g/week, weight -1.6 lb (95% CI -3 to -0.15; metric: -0.72 kg, -1.37 to -0.07) vs non-carbonated water
• In a crossover trial of 13 young women, 8.5 fl oz (250 ml) of carbonated water raised fullness and lowered hunger ratings compared with plain water, an effect traced to CO2 in the mouth. — 13 young women after overnight fast, 8.5 fl oz (250 ml) at 15 C, single sessions (n = 13) Evidence B source
  Increased fullness and decreased hunger on visual analog scales vs plain water, size not in abstract
• In 32 young adults, a breakfast with sparkling water left people hungrier than juice, milk or cola, yet lunch intake was the same after all four drinks. — 32 volunteers aged 18-35, 20 fl oz (590 ml) preload with toast on four occasions (n = 32) Evidence C source
  Lunch energy intake unchanged across drinks, sparkling water gave lower fullness than caloric drinks

Safety, limits and interactions

• In lab tests on human teeth, plain sparkling mineral waters dissolved enamel slightly more than still waters but about 100 times less than soft drinks. — still and sparkling mineral waters and comparator soft drinks, extracted human teeth and hydroxyapatite Evidence D source
  Enamel dissolution about one hundred times lower than comparator soft drinks
• In a double-blind RCT of 102 pregnant women, 3.2 tbsp (48 ml) a day of an iron-rich natural mineral water caused no more dyspepsia than placebo, and ferritin fell by 24% instead of 51%. — low-risk antenatal patients noncompliant with ferrous sulfate tablets, 22 to 28 weeks gestation (n = 102) Evidence B source
  Ferritin fall 24% (mineral water) vs 51% (placebo), P = 0.016; dyspepsia scores did not differ; compliance 57% vs 67%, P = 0.22
• In a double-blind RCT of 74 pregnant women drinking 1.1 quarts (1 liter) of mineral water a day for 8 weeks, a fortified version raised red cell folate by 360.9 nmol/L against 195.6 nmol/L with normal mineral water. — pregnant women in Finland from week 11, two-week run-in then eight-week intervention (n = 74) Evidence B source
  Erythrocyte folate +360.9 vs +195.6 nmol/L (P = 0.004); serum folate +10.3 vs -2.7 nmol/L; homocysteine -1.1 vs -0.3 micromol/L (P < 0.05)
• In a Danish cohort of 59,334 pregnant women, one or more daily servings of artificially sweetened carbonated soft drinks was linked to 38% higher odds of preterm delivery. — women of the Danish National Birth Cohort (1996-2002), intake assessed in midpregnancy (n = 59334) Evidence C source
  OR 1.38 (95% CI 1.15 to 1.65) for at least 1 serving/day; OR 1.78 (1.19 to 2.66) for at least 4 servings/day; no association for sugar-sweetened carbonated soft drinks
• In a Norwegian cohort of 60,761 pregnant women, more than one daily serving of artificially sweetened drinks was linked to 11% higher odds of preterm delivery, and of sugar-sweetened drinks to 25% higher odds. — pregnant women in the Norwegian Mother and Child Cohort Study, carbonated and noncarbonated beverages by FFQ in midpregnancy (n = 60761) Evidence C source
  Artificially sweetened >1 serving/day OR 1.11 (95% CI 1.00 to 1.24); sugar-sweetened >1 serving/day OR 1.25 (1.08 to 1.45)
• A meta-analysis of 71 observational studies linked carbonated drinks to 43% higher odds of erosive tooth wear, and regurgitation to more than double the odds. — observational studies of erosive tooth wear in permanent dentition (n = 71 studies) Evidence C source
  Carbonated drinks OR 1.43 (95% CI 1.17 to 1.75); regurgitation OR 2.27 (1.41 to 3.65); acidic foods OR 2.40 (1.44 to 4.00)
• A case report describes an anaphylactic reaction to sulfites present in a sparkling water. — one adult woman (n = 1) Evidence D source
  Anaphylaxis attributed to sulfites in the drink

What people believe that the data does not support

• Rats given carbonated drinks for about a year gained weight faster than rats on degassed drinks, which the authors tied to higher ghrelin, the hunger hormone. — male rats over about one year; plus 20 healthy male students tested acutely for ghrelin (n = 20 (human part)) Evidence D source
  Faster weight gain, more food intake and liver fat in rats on gaseous drinks; higher ghrelin in 20 men after carbonated drinks
• The CDC suggests plain sparkling water with a splash of 100% juice as a low-calorie swap for sugary drinks. — US public Evidence E source
  Swap advice; no claim that sparkling water itself causes weight loss
• According to a 2024 expert consensus of 11 gastroenterologists and primary care doctors, people with reflux-like symptoms should limit alcohol, coffee and carbonated beverages. — patients with reflux-like symptoms (heartburn and regurgitation) (n = 11 experts) Evidence E source
  Statement reached 100% agreement; 21 consensus statements in total
• The EU refused a claim that regular drinking of a naturally sparkling mineral water lowers high blood sugar. — EU health claim application Evidence E source
  Claim non-authorized
• The EU also refused a claim that a bicarbonated carbonated mineral water helps reduce the rise of blood triglycerides after a meal. — EU health claim application Evidence E source
  Claim non-authorized

Who this works differently for

• Flavored sparkling waters from the UK market had pH 2.7 to 3.3 and dissolved tooth mineral as much as or more than orange juice. — a selection of flavored sparkling water drinks from the UK market Evidence D source
  PH 2.74-3.34; erosive potential 89-143% of pure orange juice
• A 2024 expert consensus on reflux-like symptoms reached full agreement on advising patients to limit carbonated beverages. — patients with reflux-like symptoms Evidence E source
  Limiting carbonated beverages among 11 statements with 100% agreement
• In a crossover trial of 8 healthy volunteers, carbonated water did not slow how fast a meal left the stomach but kept more of it in the upper stomach, 74% of solids against 56% with still water. — healthy volunteers, radiolabelled mixed meal with carbonated or still water (n = 8) Evidence B source
  Proximal stomach solids 74% vs 56%, liquids 43% vs 27% (P < 0.05); overall gastric emptying and lag phase identical
• The US Institute of Medicine set adequate total water intake at 3.2 quarts (3.0 L) a day in pregnancy, 10 fl oz (0.3 L) more than for non-pregnant women. — pregnant and breastfeeding women; reference values cited in a 2016 Nutrients survey Evidence E source
  AI total water 3.0 L/day pregnant (+10 fl oz (0.3 L)), 3.8 L/day breastfeeding (+1.2 quarts (1.1 L)), IOM
• In 51 calcium oxalate stone formers, drinking 1.3 quarts (1.25 L) a day of bicarbonate-rich mineral water for 12 weeks raised urine volume by 22 fl oz (644 ml) a day but did not lower urinary oxalate. — 51 Asian adults with calcium oxalate stones, 1.3 quarts (1.25 L) mineral water at meals plus plain water up to 3 L/day, 12 weeks (n = 51) Evidence B source
  Urine volume +644 ml/24 h (95% CI 206.7-1081.3), magnesium +1.894 mmol/24 h, pH +0.477; urinary oxalate and Tiselius index unchanged

What is still unknown

• The only long trial of carbonated water and weight could not blind participants, so the snacking and alcohol diaries were self-reported knowing the drink. — healthy Japanese adults aged 20-64 years with BMI 23.0 to under 30.0 (n = 45) Evidence B source
  Open-label design; snacking and alcohol by daily questionnaire
• A 2025 brief report proposed that CO2 from fizzy water speeds glucose use in red blood cells, and its author judged the effect too small to cause weight loss alone. — no participants; theoretical comparison with hemodialysis data from 2004 Evidence D source
  No measured weight or glucose outcome in people drinking carbonated water
• A Cochrane review of heartburn in pregnancy found no trial of diet advice alone. In one trial of 65 women, sucralfate gave complete relief 2.41 times as often as diet and lifestyle advice. — pregnant women with heartburn; nine RCTs with 725 women, four contributing data (n = 65) Evidence A source
  Complete relief RR 2.41 (95% CI 1.42 to 4.07) sucralfate vs diet and lifestyle advice, one study
• In a 2016 survey of about 300 pregnant women in Indonesia, 42% did not reach the adequate intake of water from fluids. — pregnant women in Java, Indonesia, 7-day fluid-specific record (n = 299) Evidence C source
  42% of pregnant women below the AI of water from fluids (18% Jakarta to 54% Surabaya)
• A 2024 systematic review concluded it is still unknown whether people with high blood pressure should avoid sparkling water. — studies of carbonated water intake in hypertensive patients (n = not stated in abstract) Evidence C source
  No conclusion possible, question left open

The bottom line

In 8 healthy volunteers in 1997, carbonated water did not change how fast a meal left the stomach, and it kept more of the meal in the upper stomach, 74 percent of solids against 56 percent with still water. Mineral waters are a separate case. A meta-analysis of 4 small absorption studies, pooling only p values, found calcium from calcium-rich mineral waters absorbed at least as well as calcium from dairy, and most sparkling water is not calcium-rich. The EU refused a claim that a naturally sparkling mineral water lowers high blood sugar, and another that a bicarbonate mineral water curbs the rise in blood fats after a meal. In 51 people with calcium oxalate kidney stones, 1.3 quarts (1.25 L) a day of bicarbonate-rich mineral water for 12 weeks raised urine volume by 22 fl oz (644 ml) a day (95% CI 207 to 1081) and did not lower urinary oxalate. That trial was open label, measured urine markers rather than new stones, and used a mineral water unlike most sparkling water. Whether people with high blood pressure should avoid sparkling water is still open. A 2024 systematic review said the question remains unanswered. Who should take care. The one safety card is a single case of anaphylaxis in an adult woman, traced to sulfites in a sparkling water, and not every sparkling water contains sulfites. If you react to sulfites, read the label. We have no card on children, pregnancy, medicines or teeth for plain sparkling water.

Sources

1. spkw-r1-01 · reference dataset
   FNDDS 2710539 Water, carbonated, plain: Energy 0 kcal, Sodium 21 mg, Calcium 5 mg per 100 g · 1 can (12 fl oz) 360 g: 75.6 mg sodium, 18.0 mg calcium · 1 bottle (16.9 fl oz or 500 ml) 507 g: 106.5 mg sodium, 25.4 mg calcium
   USDA FNDDS 2021-2023 · checked 2026-09-29
2. spkw-r1-04 · randomized crossover trial
   However, the proximal stomach contained a greater proportion of solids (74 +/- 7% vs 56 +/- 8%, P < 0.05) and liquids (43 +/- 5% vs 27 +/- 4%, P < 0.05) with carbonated water as opposed to still water.
   Dig Dis Sci, 1997 · checked 2026-09-29
3. spkw-r1-05 · meta-analysis
   A meta-analysis based on published p values indicated calcium absorption from mineral waters was significantly higher (p = 0.03) than that from dairy products.
   Osteoporos Int, 2000 · checked 2026-09-29
4. ev-spw-01 · RCT
   At week 12, modest decreases were observed in body weight and body mass index (BMI) compared with placebo (body weight: -0.72 kg; 95% CI - 1.37 to - 0.07; P = 0.036; BMI: -0.26 kg/m²; 95% CI - 0.50 to - 0.02; P = 0.037).
   Sci Rep, 2026 · checked 2026-10-07
5. ev-spw-03 · RCT
   There were no significant effects on satiety following lunch or on intakes for the rest of the day.
   Br J Nutr, 2008 · checked 2026-10-07
6. ev-spw-04 · RCT
   The increase in gastric volume following a 300 ml pre-meal carbonated beverage did not affect food intake whether a solid or liquid meal was given.
   Nutr J, 2011 · checked 2026-10-07
7. ev-spw-05 · RCT
   After ingestion, significantly increased fullness and decreased hunger ratings were observed in the CW group.
   J Nutr Sci Vitaminol (Tokyo), 2017 · checked 2026-10-07
8. ev-spw-06 · RCT
   In conclusion, carbonated water did not alter overall gastric emptying but profoundly modified intragastric distribution of the meal.
   Dig Dis Sci, 1997 · checked 2026-10-07
9. ev-spwp-04 · randomized controlled trial
   After ingestion, significantly increased fullness and decreased hunger ratings were observed in the CW group.
   J Nutr Sci Vitaminol (Tokyo), 2017 · checked 2026-10-07
10. spkw-r1-02 · randomized controlled trial
    Compared with the placebo group, the carbonated water group showed a greater reduction in snacking frequency (times/week) at week 4 (mean difference - 1.39; 95% confidence interval CI - 2.82 to -0.28; P = 0.018) and week 12 (- 1.49; 95% CI - 2.93 to - 0.05; P = 0.049).
    Sci Rep, 2026 · checked 2026-09-29
11. spkw-r1-03 · randomized crossover trial
    After ingestion, significantly increased fullness and decreased hunger ratings were observed in the CW group.
    J Nutr Sci Vitaminol (Tokyo), 2017 · checked 2026-09-29
12. spkw-r1-11 · crossover preload study
    However, energy intakes at lunch (4511+/-151 kJ for men and 3183+/-203 kJ for women) were the same across all four beverage conditions and no compensation for breakfast energy was observed.
    Physiol Behav, 2003 · checked 2026-09-29
13. ev-spw-09 · in vitro study
    Sparkling mineral waters showed slightly greater dissolution than still waters, but levels remained low and were of the order of one hundred times less than the comparator soft drinks.
    Journal of Oral Rehabilitation, 2001, 28(8):766-772 · checked 2026-10-07
14. ev-spwp-01 · randomized controlled trial
    During the trial period, mean ferritin levels fell by 24% in the Spatone Iron-Plus group compared with a mean fall of 51% in ferritin levels among the control group, P = 0.016.
    Clin Lab Haematol, 2003 · checked 2026-10-07
15. ev-spwp-02 · randomized controlled trial
    The erythrocyte folate concentrations increased in the study group by 360.9 nmol/L and in the controls by 195.6 nmol/L (P=0.004) and serum homocysteine concentrations fell by 1.1 micromol/L and by 0.3 micromol/L, respectively (P<0.05).
    J Perinat Med, 2007 · checked 2026-10-07
16. ev-spwp-05 · prospective cohort study
    In comparison with women with no intake of artificially sweetened carbonated soft drinks, the adjusted odds ratio for women who consumed ge 1 serving of artificially sweetened carbonated soft drinks/d was 1.38 (95% CI: 1.15, 1.65).
    Am J Clin Nutr, 2010 · checked 2026-10-07
17. ev-spwp-06 · prospective cohort study
    Drinking >1 serving of SS beverages per day was also associated with an increased risk of preterm delivery (adjusted OR: 1.25; 95% CI: 1.08, 1.45).
    Am J Clin Nutr, 2012 · checked 2026-10-07
18. ev-spwp-07 · meta-analysis of observational studies
    Meta-analyses revealed significant associations between erosive tooth wear and male gender (padj.<0.001; OR=1.30, 95 % CI: 1.16-1.44), regurgitation (padj.=0.033; OR=2.27, 95 % CI: 1.41-3.65), digestive disorders (padj.<0.001; OR=1.81, 95 % CI: 1.48-2.21), consumption of acidic foods (padj.=0.033; OR=2.40, 95 % CI: 1.44-4.00), seasoning sauces (padj.=0.003; OR=1.28, 95 % CI: 1.13-1.44), nutritional supplements (padj.=0.019; OR=1.73, 95 % CI: 1.28-2.35), and carbonated drinks (padj.=0.019; OR=1.43, 95 % CI: 1.17-1.75).
    J Dent, 2024 · checked 2026-10-07
19. spkw-r1-06 · case report
    Here we present a patient who had an anaphylactic reaction secondary to exposure to sulfites found in sparkling water.
    Am J Emerg Med, 2018 · checked 2026-09-29
20. ev-spw-08 · animal study
    Here, we show that rats consuming gaseous beverages over a period of around 1 year gain weight at a faster rate than controls on regular degassed carbonated beverage or tap water.
    Obes Res Clin Pract, 2017 · checked 2026-10-07
21. ev-spw-12 · agency guidance
    Add a splash of 100% juice to plain sparkling water for a refreshing, low-calorie drink.
    US CDC, Rethink Your Drink, Healthy Weight and Growth, 2026 · checked 2026-10-07
22. ev-spwp-08 · expert consensus statement
    Eleven statements achieved the strongest (100%) agreement: five are related to diet and include identification and avoidance of dietary triggers, limiting alcohol, coffee and carbonated beverages, and advising patients troubled by postprandial symptoms not to overeat; the remaining six statements concern advice around smoking cessation, weight loss, raising the head-of-the-bed, avoiding recumbency after meals, stress reduction and alginate use.
    Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol, 2024 · checked 2026-10-07
23. spkw-r1-07 · regulatory register
    POL-HC-6281 Melgaço® naturally sparkling mineral water The regular consumption of Melgaço mineral water reduces body hyperglycaemic levels -/- Non-authorised
    EU Register on nutrition and health claims, claim POL-HC-6281, snapshot 2026-09-21 · checked 2026-09-29
24. spkw-r1-08 · regulatory register
    POL-HC-8426 Vichy Catalan carbonated natural mineral water Vichy Catalan, a bicarbonated natural mineral water rich in mineral salts, contributes to reduce blood triglycerides rise during digestion -/- Non-authorised
    EU Register on nutrition and health claims, claim POL-HC-8426, snapshot 2026-09-21 · checked 2026-09-29
25. ev-spw-10 · in vitro study
    In the hydroxyapatite dissolution assay, all of the waters demonstrated erosive potential (89-143%) similar to or greater than that of pure orange juice, an established erosive drink.
    International Journal of Paediatric Dentistry, 2007, 17(2):86-91 · checked 2026-10-07
26. ev-spw-11 · expert consensus
    Eleven statements achieved the strongest (100%) agreement: five are related to diet and include identification and avoidance of dietary triggers, limiting alcohol, coffee and carbonated beverages, and advising patients troubled by postprandial symptoms not to overeat; the remaining six statements concern advice around smoking cessation, weight loss, raising the head-of-the-bed, avoiding recumbency after meals, stress reduction and alginate use.
    Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol, 2024 · checked 2026-10-07
27. ev-spwp-03 · randomized controlled trial
    However, the proximal stomach contained a greater proportion of solids (74 +/- 7% vs 56 +/- 8%, P < 0.05) and liquids (43 +/- 5% vs 27 +/- 4%, P < 0.05) with carbonated water as opposed to still water.
    Dig Dis Sci, 1997 · checked 2026-10-07
28. ev-spwp-10 · dietary reference value
    The AI was set at 3.0 L/day for pregnant women and 3.8 L/day for breastfeeding women, which is an increase of 0.3 L/day and 1.1 L/day, respectively, compared to non-pregnant/non-breastfeeding women [13].
    Nutrients, 2016 · checked 2026-10-07
29. spkw-r1-10 · randomized controlled trial
    Over the course of 12 weeks, compared to patients drinking plain water, those drinking mineral water had higher overall urinary volume (difference = 644.0 ml/24 h, 95% CI = (206.7, 1081.3)), higher overall urinary magnesium (difference = 1.894 mmol/24 h, 95% CI = (1.006, 2.782)), and pH (difference = 0.477, 95% CI = (0.149, 0.804)).
    Int Urol Nephrol, 2022 · checked 2026-09-29
30. ev-spw-02 · RCT
    First, the study employed an open-label design because blinding was not feasible due to the perceptible sensory characteristics of carbonation.
    Sci Rep, 2026 · checked 2026-10-07
31. ev-spw-07 · mechanistic hypothesis
    However, the amount is so small that it is difficult to expect weight loss effects solely from the CO2 in carbonated water.
    BMJ Nutrition, Prevention & Health, 2025, 8(1):e001108 · checked 2026-10-07
32. ev-spwp-09 · Cochrane review of RCTs
    More women in the sucralfate group experienced complete relief of heartburn compared to women who received advice on diet and lifestyle choices (RR 2.41, 95% CI 1.42 to 4.07; participants = 65; studies = one).
    Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2015 · checked 2026-10-07
33. ev-spwp-11 · cross-sectional study
    Non-adherence to the AI was observed among 42% of the total sample of pregnant women.
    Nutrients, 2016 · checked 2026-10-07
34. spkw-r1-09 · systematic review
    In conclusion, the question of whether hypertensive patients should steer clear of sparkling water remains unanswered.
    Curr Nutr Rep, 2024 · checked 2026-09-29