Palm oil: cholesterol, vitamin A and refining

The clearest measurable effect of palm oil is on LDL cholesterol. Compared with oils lower in saturated fat, it raised LDL cholesterol by 0.24 mmol/L across clinical trials, and by 0.31 mmol/L when only the randomised trials were counted. Two later meta-analyses split on this. One found a rise of 0.20 mmol/L against monounsaturated oils and 0.44 against polyunsaturated ones, on evidence it rated low to moderate. The other pooled 11 trials in 547 people and found no significant change in LDL at all. So the direction is likely and the size is argued over. Whether any of it ends in heart attacks is unknown. A review that went looking for heart disease and stroke found 5 studies, all of very low quality, and could not say either way. The vitamin A result is solid and narrow. Across 9 randomised trials red palm oil cut vitamin A deficiency by 45 percent, in children and adults already at risk of it. That is the unrefined red oil. The refined oil sold for cooking carries carotene only as a trace. The one pregnancy trial of palm tocotrienols gave women a 100 mg supplement capsule, so it tells you about that pill and nothing about the oil in your pan.

The numbers, per 100 g

How much is actually in it

• USDA gives refined palm oil 15.94 mg of vitamin E per 100 g and 49.3 g of saturated fat, while the British CoFID table gives 33.12 mg and 47.8 g, a 52% gap in vitamin E that no single number resolves, and CoFID lists carotene only as a trace. — USDA SR Legacy Oil, palm (FDC 171015) versus CoFID 17-039 Oil, palm (n = 2 independent composition entries) Evidence E source
  Vitamin E 15.94 vs 33.12 mg; saturated fat 49.3 vs 47.8 g; fat 100 vs 99.9 g; carotene Tr in CoFID
• British composition data give palm oil twice the vitamin E of the USDA record, 33.1 mg against 15.9 mg per 100 g, while saturated fat agrees within 3% (47.8 g and 49.3 g). — CoFID 2021 entry 17-039 against USDA SR Legacy FDC 171015 (n = one entry each) Evidence E source
  Vitamin E 33.12 vs 15.94 mg, saturated fat 47.8 vs 49.3 g per 100 g

What your body absorbs

• Across 9 randomised trials, red palm oil cut the risk of vitamin A deficiency by 45% (RR 0.55) and raised serum retinol, with no further gain above about 8 g a day. — Children and adults at risk of vitamin A deficiency (n = 9 RCTs) Evidence A source
  RR 0.55 (0.37, 0.82) for vitamin A deficiency; serum retinol up in children and adults; plateau above 8 g red palm oil

What cooking and storage change

• Among 290 foods tested in Hong Kong, fats and oils carried a mean 390 µg/kg of bound 3-MCPD from refining, and adult exposure reached 10 to 26% of the JECFA tolerable intake. — 290 food samples, Hong Kong adults (n = 290 samples) Evidence C source
  Bound 3-MCPD: biscuits 440, fats and oils 390 µg/kg; exposure 0.20 (average) and 0.53 (high) µg/kg bw per day

What it does to your health

• In a meta-analysis of clinical trials of at least 2 weeks, palm oil raised LDL cholesterol by 0.24 mmol/L (95% CI 0.13 to 0.35) compared with vegetable oils low in saturated fat, and by 0.31 mmol/L in the randomised trials alone. — adults in clinical trials of 2 weeks or longer comparing palm oil with vegetable oils low in saturated fat, trans-fat oils or animal fats; PROSPERO CRD42012002601 (n = not stated in abstract) Evidence A source
  LDL +0.24 mmol/L (95% CI 0.13 to 0.35; I2 83.2%) vs low-SFA vegetable oils; randomised trials +0.31 (0.20 to 0.42); HDL +0.02 vs low-SFA oils and +0.09 vs trans-fat oils
• A 2020 GRADE-rated meta-analysis found palm oil raised total cholesterol by 0.27 mmol/L and LDL by 0.20 mmol/L against oils rich in monounsaturated fat, and LDL by 0.44 mmol/L against polyunsaturated oils, with evidence mostly of low to moderate quality. — clinical trials comparing palm-oil-rich diets with MUFA-rich or PUFA-rich oils; Medline, Embase, CENTRAL, CINAHL; random effects (n = not stated in abstract) Evidence A source
  Vs MUFA: TC +0.27 (0.08 to 0.45), LDL +0.20 (0.02 to 0.37), HDL +0.06 mmol/L; vs PUFA: TC +0.38, LDL +0.44 (0.01 to 0.88), HDL +0.08; triglycerides unchanged
• An umbrella review of 9 meta-analyses found that replacing monounsaturated oils with palm oil raised LDL by 9.18 mg/dL (95% CI 6.90 to 11.45) and replacing polyunsaturated oils raised it by 3.43 mg/dL, with HDL up 0.94 and 1.89 mg/dL respectively. — 9 meta-analyses of dietary oils and lipid levels searched to December 2018 in Medline, Scopus, Embase and Cochrane (n = 9 meta-analyses) Evidence A source
  LDL +9.18 (6.90 to 11.45) mg/dL vs MUFA oils and +3.43 (0.44 to 6.41) vs PUFA oils; HDL +0.94 (-0.07 to 1.97) and +1.89 (1.23 to 2.55) mg/dL
• A systematic review of 8 short trials in healthy adults found no detectable difference in fasting glucose between palm oil and soybean oil (0.05 mmol/L, 95% CI -0.09 to 0.18) or olive oil (0.04 mmol/L), with fat substitutions of 15% to 20% of energy for 3 to 7 weeks. — 8 trials (7 randomised cross-over, 1 parallel) in young to middle-aged healthy non-diabetic normal-weight adults, 3 to 7 weeks (n = 8 trials) Evidence A source
  Fasting glucose vs partially hydrogenated soybean oil -0.15 mmol/L (-0.46 to 0.16), vs soybean oil 0.05 (-0.09 to 0.18), vs olive oil 0.04 (-0.09 to 0.17); fasting insulin also unchanged
• Across clinical trials, palm oil raised LDL cholesterol by 0.24 mmol/L compared with vegetable oils low in saturated fat, and by 0.31 mmol/L when only randomised trials were counted. — Adults in trials of at least 2 weeks comparing palm oil with other cooking oils Evidence A source
  LDL +0.24 mmol/L (0.13, 0.35) all trials, +0.31 (0.20, 0.42) randomised, +0.03 nonrandomised; HDL +0.02
• A 2020 meta-analysis found palm oil raised LDL cholesterol by 0.20 mmol/L against oils rich in monounsaturated fat and by 0.44 mmol/L against oils rich in polyunsaturated fat, with low to moderate quality evidence. — Participants in clinical trials comparing palm oil diets with MUFA or PUFA diets Evidence A source
  Vs MUFA: TC +0.27, LDL +0.20, HDL +0.06 mmol/L; vs PUFA: TC +0.38, LDL +0.44, HDL +0.08 mmol/L; triglycerides unchanged
• In 8 trials lasting 3 to 7 weeks, swapping palm oil for olive or soybean oil did not change fasting glucose (differences of 0.04 to 0.05 mmol/L) in healthy adults. — Healthy, non-diabetic, normal-weight young to middle-aged adults (n = 8 trials) Evidence A source
  Fasting glucose vs olive oil +0.04 mmol/L (-0.09, 0.17), vs soybean oil +0.05 (-0.09, 0.18)

Safety, limits and interactions

• A 2021 systematic review found that 3-MCPD esters, 2-MCPD esters and glycidyl esters in infant formula come entirely from the refined vegetable oils used, with high levels when large amounts of palm oil or palm fat are in the recipe, so control must happen at oil refining. — infant formulas on the market; occurrence data on thermal processing contaminants by recipe and process (n = not stated in abstract) Evidence C source
  MCPD and glycidyl ester content depends fully on the oils; higher with more palm oil; dAGEs depend on protein hydrolysis and carbohydrate type
• EFSA found in 2016 that the highest levels of glycidyl esters, 3-MCPD and 2-MCPD were in palm oils and palm fats, set no safe level for glycidyl esters because glycidol is genotoxic and carcinogenic, and noted that glycidyl ester levels in palm oil halved between 2010 and 2015. — European consumers of refined vegetable oils and foods made with them; EFSA CONTAM Panel opinion of 3 May 2016 (n = EFSA opinion) Evidence E source
  No safe level for GE; 3-MCPD TDI 0.8 µg/kg bw/day in 2016 (revised in 2018, value not fetched); GE in palm oils and fats halved 2010 to 2015
• EFSA in 2018 raised its safe level for the refining contaminant 3-MCPD two and a half fold, to a tolerable daily intake of 2.0 µg per kg body weight. — General population, EU Evidence E source
  TDI 3-MCPD 2.0 µg/kg bw per day (previously 0.8)

What people believe that the data does not support

• Across 51 intervention studies of 2 to 16 weeks, replacing the main dietary fats with palm oil gave both favourable and unfavourable changes in coronary and cardiovascular risk markers, and replacing trans fats with palm oil gave only favourable ones. — 51 dietary intervention studies, 2 to 16 weeks, fat substitutions of 4% to 43% of dietary fat (n = 51 studies) Evidence A source
  Vs stearic, MUFA and PUFA diets: higher TC, LDL, apoB, HDL and apoA-I; vs myristic/lauric: mostly lower; vs trans fats: higher HDL and apoA-I, lower apoB, triglycerides and TC/HDL
• The EU register lists the claim that natural palm oil carotenes are antioxidants that protect the body's cells from free radicals as non-authorised, and no claim naming palm oil is authorised in the EU. — EU market; Article 13 claim for natural palm oil carotenes (n = 4 palm oil claims, 0 authorised) Evidence E source
  Claim status Non-authorised; three other palm-oil-related claims (satiety, provitamin A in pregnancy) also non-authorised
• The ESPGHAN nutrition committee reviewed 12 palm oil and 21 beta-palmitate formula studies and found insufficient evidence that palm oil should be avoided in infant formula, while noting it is associated with harder stools. — Formula-fed infants (n = 33 studies) Evidence E source
  Position: palm oil linked to harder stools, bone effects short-lived, growth unaffected
• The EU refused a health claim that a palm and oat oil emulsion helps people eat less or keep weight off after dieting, one of 7 palm-related claims in the register, none authorised. — EU health claim register (n = 7 palm-related claims, 0 authorised) Evidence E source
  Status Non-authorised
• The EU also refused the claim that beta-palmitate enrichment increases calcium absorption, although infant studies point that way. — EU health claim register Evidence E source
  Status Non-authorised

Who this works differently for

• In a meta-analysis of 9 randomised trials, red palm oil cut the risk of vitamin A deficiency by 45% (RR 0.55, 95% CI 0.37 to 0.82) and raised serum retinol in children and adults, with doses of 8 g or less already effective and higher doses adding nothing. — children and adults in 9 RCTs of red palm oil against vitamin A deficiency (n = 9 RCTs) Evidence A source
  VAD RR 0.55 (0.37 to 0.82; p = 0.003); serum retinol up in children (p < 0.00001) and adults (p = 0.002); beta-carotene up (p = 0.01); haemoglobin and body weight unchanged; no further retinol gain above 8 g/day
• In a double-blind trial of 170 pregnant women in India given red palm oil supplying about 2,400 µg of beta-carotene daily for 8 weeks, vitamin A deficiency after the intervention was 1.5% versus 9.7% on groundnut oil, while anaemia stayed common in both groups at 80.6% versus 96.7%. — 170 women in India recruited at 16 to 24 weeks of gestation, oils given from 26-28 to 34-36 weeks, red palm oil vs equal volume of groundnut oil; a setting where most women were anaemic at the end of the trial in both groups (n = 170) Evidence B source
  Serum retinol 1.20 vs 1.07 µmol/L in mothers (p < .01), 0.73 vs 0.62 in infants (p < .001); VAD 1.5% vs 9.7%; anaemia 80.6% vs 96.7% (p < .01); birthweight and gestational age unchanged
• A meta-analysis of 13 infant-formula studies found that formula with palmitic acid in the sn-1,3 positions, the form supplied by palm oil, gave lower fat and calcium absorption, more faecal calcium and more hard stools than formula with sn-2 palmitate or no palmitic acid (P < 0.01). — infants fed formulas differing in palmitic acid position or source, 13 studies from 1990 to March 2009 in English and Chinese databases (n = 13 studies) Evidence A source
  Fat and calcium absorption lower and faecal Ca higher with sn-1,3 palmitate (P < 0.01); bone mineral content lower at 3 and 6 months vs palmitic-free formula; hard stools more frequent
• The ESPGHAN Committee on Nutrition reviewed 12 studies of palm oil and 21 of sn-2 palmitate in infant formula and concluded there is insufficient evidence that palm oil should be avoided in formula, while noting it is associated with harder stools. — infants fed formula containing palm oil or sn-2 palmitate; European paediatric gastroenterology society position (n = 33 studies reviewed) Evidence E source
  Harder stools with palm oil, softer with sn-2 palmitate; bone effects short-lasting; growth not influenced; colic, microbiota and lipid metabolism inconclusive
• In a randomised trial in 170 pregnant women in India, 8 weeks of red palm oil in the third trimester lowered vitamin A deficiency from 9.7% to 1.5% and raised retinol in their newborns. — Pregnant women recruited at 16-24 weeks, oil from 26-28 to 34-36 weeks (n = 170) Evidence B source
  Vitamin A deficiency 1.5% vs 9.7%; maternal retinol 1.20 vs 1.07 µmol/L; infant 0.73 vs 0.62 µmol/L
• A meta-analysis of 13 infant formula studies found lower fat and calcium absorption and harder stools when palmitic acid sat at the sn-1,3 positions typical of palm oil. — Formula-fed infants (n = 13 articles) Evidence A source
  Lower fat and calcium absorption, more fecal calcium, lower bone mineral content, more hard stools (P < 0.01)
• In a randomised trial in 299 first-time pregnant women, a palm oil tocotrienol supplement at 100 mg a day was followed by pregnancy hypertension in 2.6% against 7.4% on placebo, a difference that was not significant (p = 0.058). — Healthy primigravidae from early second trimester to delivery, urban teaching hospital (n = 299) Evidence B source
  PIH 2.6% vs 7.4%, RR 0.36 (0.12-1.09)

What is still unknown

• A 2019 meta-analysis of 11 intervention trials in 547 people found no significant effect of palm oil on LDL (-0.05 mmol/L, p = 0.10) or total cholesterol against unsaturated oils and a rise in HDL of 0.15 mmol/L, which contradicts the 2015 and 2020 pooled estimates. — 547 participants in 11 dietary intervention trials searched to June 2018 in PubMed, EMBASE, Cochrane and CNKI (n = 11 trials, 547) Evidence A source
  HDL +0.15 mmol/L (p < 0.00001); TC -0.01 (p = 0.82); LDL -0.05 (p = 0.10); triglycerides 0.00
• A 2018 systematic review of hard outcomes found only 4 studies on coronary heart disease and 1 on stroke, all graded very low, and could not establish evidence for or against palm oil and cardiovascular disease. — adults over 18 in interventional and observational studies searched to June 2017 in Central, Medline and Embase; narrative synthesis only (n = 5 studies) Evidence C source
  Palmitic acid and MI OR 2.76 (1.39 to 5.47) in one study; palm oil vs soybean oil with 5% trans fat OR 1.33 (1.09 to 1.62); ecological estimate of 68 CHD deaths per 100,000 per extra kg per capita in developing countries; no pooled estimate
• A 2019 meta-analysis of 11 trials with 547 participants found no significant change in LDL cholesterol (-0.05 mmol/L) with palm oil against unsaturated fats, and HDL 0.15 mmol/L higher, disagreeing with the other two meta-analyses. — Volunteers in dietary intervention trials (n = 547) Evidence A source
  LDL -0.05 mmol/L (p=0.10), TC -0.01 (p=0.82), HDL +0.15 mmol/L (p<0.00001)
• A systematic review found only 5 studies on palm oil and heart disease or stroke, all very low quality, and could not establish evidence for or against palm oil as a cardiovascular risk. — Adults in interventional and observational studies up to June 2017 (n = 5 studies) Evidence C source
  No pooled estimate; palm vs soybean oil with 5% trans fat OR 1.33 (1.09-1.62) for first MI, rated imprecise
• In a 30-day crossover trial in 21 young adults, palm olein and olive oil at 17% of energy gave almost identical LDL cholesterol, and palm oil tocotrienols were barely detectable in plasma. — Healthy normocholesterolaemic young adults, free-living (n = 21) Evidence B source
  Plasma total and LDL cholesterol almost identical; tocotrienols barely detectable

The bottom line

If you cook with palm oil most days and your LDL is something you and your doctor watch, swapping it for an oil lower in saturated fat is the change with trials behind it. How much it moves depends on which meta-analysis you believe, and one of the three found nothing. The comparison runs the other way against hardened fats. Across 51 intervention studies, palm oil in place of trans fats gave higher HDL and lower apoB and triglycerides, so if the alternative on the label is partially hydrogenated fat, palm oil gives the better blood-fat profile of the two. These are blood markers, and whether they mean fewer heart attacks is unknown. Blood sugar did not move. Across 8 trials, fasting glucose on palm oil differed from olive or soybean oil by 0.04 to 0.05 mmol/L, no detectable difference in trials of 3 to 7 weeks in healthy adults. The review had nothing on people with diabetes. Refining is where the safety questions sit. EFSA found in 2016 that palm oils and palm fats carried the highest levels of glycidyl esters and 3-MCPD, contaminants that form when oil is refined at high heat. It set no safe level for glycidyl esters, because the glycidol they release is genotoxic, meaning it damages DNA, and carcinogenic. The same opinion recorded that glycidyl esters in palm oil halved between 2010 and 2015. For 3-MCPD, EFSA in 2018 raised its tolerable daily intake to 2.0 micrograms per kg of body weight, up from 0.8. In a Hong Kong survey of 290 foods, adults took in 10 to 26 percent of the tolerable intake set by JECFA. Infant formula gets its own evidence. In formula these contaminants come entirely from the refined oils, and levels are higher when the recipe uses a lot of palm oil. A meta-analysis of 13 formula studies found that palmitic acid in the position palm oil puts it gave babies less fat and calcium absorbed and harder stools, and lower bone mineral content at 3 and 6 months than formula without palmitic acid. The European paediatric nutrition committee reviewed 33 studies and found insufficient evidence that palm oil should be avoided in formula: the bone effects were short-lived and growth was unaffected, and the harder stools were real. If your baby struggles with hard stools on formula, that is a question for your paediatrician. Red palm oil is a food used against vitamin A deficiency, and this is where it helps. In a double-blind trial of 170 pregnant women in India, vitamin A deficiency after 8 weeks was 1.5 percent on red palm oil against 9.7 percent on groundnut oil. Anaemia stayed common in both groups, 80.6 against 96.7 percent, which describes how widespread it was in that population in India. Do not read it as a treatment for anaemia: across the 9 pooled trials, haemoglobin did not change. In those trials, 8 g a day or less already worked and more added nothing. All of those trials were run in people at risk of deficiency, so they say nothing about anyone already getting enough. The tocotrienol capsule in 299 first pregnancies was followed by pregnancy hypertension in 2.6 percent against 7.4 percent on placebo, a gap that did not reach significance. When 21 young adults ate palm olein for 30 days, tocotrienols were barely detectable in their blood. The EU has authorised no health claim for palm oil. It refused the claim that palm carotenes protect cells as antioxidants, the claim that a palm and oat oil emulsion helps with weight, and the claim that beta-palmitate raises calcium absorption, even though infant studies point that way. Even the basic numbers wobble. USDA gives 15.9 mg of vitamin E per 100 g and the British tables 33.1 mg, while both agree that saturated fat is close to half the oil, 47.8 and 49.3 g. One section is missing from this page. We found no evidence card on who should be careful with palm oil itself: nothing on allergy, on interactions with medicines or on an upper limit for the oil. That is a gap in our research, and it should not be read as a clean bill of health.

Sources

1. plmo-c4-15 · reference dataset
   CoFID 17-039 Oil, palm — Vitamin E 33.12 mg · Fat 99.9 g · Carotene Tr || USDA SR Legacy 171015 Oil, palm — vitamin E 15.94 mg · saturated fat 49.3 g · fat 100 g per 100 g
   CoFID 2021, Public Health England / OGL v3.0, and USDA SR Legacy (FDC 171015) · checked 2026-09-23
2. pmo-b5-16 · reference dataset
   CoFID 17-039 Oil, palm: vitamin E 33.12 mg, saturated fat 47.8 g per 100 g · USDA FDC 171015 Oil, palm: vitamin E 15.94 mg, saturated fat 49.3 g per 100 g
   CoFID 2021, Public Health England / OGL v3.0 · checked 2026-09-23
3. pmo-b5-04 · meta-analysis of RCTs
   Overall, when trial results were pooled, the results indicated that RPO reduced the risk of VAD (relative risk (RR) (95% confidence interval (CI)) = 0.55 (0.37, 0.82), p = 0.003), increasedserum retinol levels in both children (p < 0.00001) and adults (p = 0.002) ... The results also showed that low level of PRO intake (≤8 g RPO) could increase serum retinol concentrations whereas PRO intake above 8 g did not lead to further increase of serum retinol concentrations.
   Nutrients, 2017 · checked 2026-09-23
4. pmo-b5-12 · cross-sectional
   the levels of 3-MCPD fatty acid esters were high in biscuits, fats and oils, snacks and Chinese pastry with mean bound 3-MCPD levels of 440, 390, 270 and 270 μg kg⁻¹, respectively. ... the dietary exposures to 3-MCPD for average and high adult consumers were only 10% and 26% of the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI)
   Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess, 2013 · checked 2026-09-23
5. plmo-c4-01 · meta-analysis
   Palm oil significantly increased LDL cholesterol by 0.24 mmol/L (95% CI: 0.13, 0.35 mmol/L; I(2) = 83.2%) compared with vegetable oils low in saturated fat. This effect was observed in randomized trials (0.31 mmol/L; 95% CI: 0.20, 0.42 mmol/L) but not in nonrandomized trials (0.03 mmol/L; 95% CI: -0.15, 0.20 mmol/L; P-difference = 0.02).
   J Nutr, 2015 · checked 2026-09-23
6. plmo-c4-02 · meta-analysis
   Intake of palm oil intake compared to oils rich in MUFA was associated with increased levels of total cholesterol (TC) [mean difference (MD)=0.27 mmol/L; 95% CI 0.08 to 0.45], LDL-C (MD=0.20 mmol/L; 95% CI 0.02 to 0.37) and HDL-C (MD=0.06 mmol/L; 95% CI 0.02 to 0.10). ... Even though palm oil increases marginally the level of serum lipids, the evidence is mostly of low to moderate quality.
   Asia Pac J Clin Nutr, 2020 · checked 2026-09-23
7. plmo-c4-05 · umbrella review
   Replacement of polyunsaturated fatty-acid-rich oils (PUFAs) and monounsaturated FA-rich oils (MUFAs) with palm oil significantly increased low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-c), by 3.43 (0.44-6.41) mg/dL and 9.18 (6.90-11.45) mg/dL, respectively, and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-c), by 1.89 (1.23-2.55) mg/dL and 0.94 (-0.07-1.97) mg/dL, respectively.
   Nutrients, 2021 · checked 2026-09-23
8. plmo-c4-07 · systematic review
   There were insignificant differences in fasting glucose when compared to partially hydrogenated soybean oil [-0.15mmol/L (-0.46,0.16) P = 0.33, I2 = 48%], soybean oil [0.05mmol/L (-0.09,0.18) P = 0.49, I2 = 0%] and olive oil [0.04mmol/L (-0.09,0.17) P = 0.76, I2 = 0%].
   PLoS One, 2019 · checked 2026-09-23
9. pmo-b5-01 · meta-analysis of RCTs
   Palm oil significantly increased LDL cholesterol by 0.24 mmol/L (95% CI: 0.13, 0.35 mmol/L; I(2) = 83.2%) compared with vegetable oils low in saturated fat. This effect was observed in randomized trials (0.31 mmol/L; 95% CI: 0.20, 0.42 mmol/L) but not in nonrandomized trials (0.03 mmol/L; 95% CI: -0.15, 0.20 mmol/L; P-difference = 0.02).
   J Nutr, 2015 · checked 2026-09-23
10. pmo-b5-02 · meta-analysis of RCTs
    Intake of palm oil intake compared to oils rich in MUFA was associated with increased levels of total cholesterol (TC) [mean difference (MD)=0.27 mmol/L; 95% CI 0.08 to 0.45], LDL-C (MD=0.20 mmol/L; 95% CI 0.02 to 0.37) and HDL-C (MD=0.06 mmol/L; 95% CI 0.02 to 0.10). Similarly, for comparison with oils rich in PUFAs, palm oil showed increased in TC (MD=0.38 mmol/L; 95% CI 0.14 to 0.62), LDL-C (MD= 0.44 mmol/L; 95% CI 0.01 to 0.88) and HDL-C (MD=0.08 mmol/L; 95% CI 0.03 to 0.13).
    Asia Pac J Clin Nutr, 2020 · checked 2026-09-23
11. pmo-b5-06 · meta-analysis of RCTs
    Seven randomised cross-over trials and one parallel trial were included. ... There were insignificant differences in fasting glucose when compared to partially hydrogenated soybean oil [-0.15mmol/L (-0.46,0.16) P = 0.33, I2 = 48%], soybean oil [0.05mmol/L (-0.09,0.18) P = 0.49, I2 = 0%] and olive oil [0.04mmol/L (-0.09,0.17) P = 0.76, I2 = 0%].
    PLoS One, 2019 · checked 2026-09-23
12. plmo-c4-12 · systematic review
    The occurrence of MCPDEs and GEs in infant formula fully depends on the vegetable oils used in the recipe. High levels of these contaminants can be found when relatively high amounts of palm oils or fats are used. The mitigation of MCPDEs and GEs should therefore be performed on fats and oils before their application to infant formula recipes.
    Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf, 2021 · checked 2026-09-23
13. plmo-c4-13 · agency opinion
    The highest levels of GE, as well as 3-MCPD and 2-MCPD (including esters) were found in palm oils and palm fats, followed by other oils and fats. ... The Panel's review revealed that levels of GE in palm oils and fats halved between 2010 and 2015, due to voluntary measures taken by producers.
    EFSA, Process contaminants in vegetable oils and foods, 3 May 2016 · checked 2026-09-23
14. pmo-b5-13 · agency position
    The panel applied the revised method to its reassessment of 3-MCPD and, as a result, it has increased its previous safe level two and a half fold.
    EFSA, 2018 · checked 2026-09-23
15. plmo-c4-04 · meta-analysis
    Fifty-one studies were included. Intervention times ranged from 2 to 16 wk, and different fat substitutions ranged from 4% to 43%. ... Both favorable and unfavorable changes in CHD/CVD risk markers occurred when PO was substituted for the primary dietary fats, whereas only favorable changes occurred when PO was substituted for trans fatty acids.
    Am J Clin Nutr, 2014 · checked 2026-09-23
16. plmo-c4-14 · regulatory register entry
    POL-HC-7651 Natural Palm Oil Carotenes Are antioxidants that protects the body's cells. Can protect you from free radicals which cause cell damage. Can protect your cells and tissues from oxidative damage. Can contribute to the total antioxidant capacity of the body. Non-authorised
    EU Register on nutrition and health claims, claim POL-HC-7651, snapshot 2026-09-21 · checked 2026-09-23
17. pmo-b5-08 · position paper
    We identified 12 relevant studies using PO and 21 studies using SN-2-palmitate. ... PO is associated with harder stools and SN-2-palmitate use may lead to softer stool consistency. Bone effects seem to be short-lasting. ... There is insufficient evidence to suggest that PO should be avoided as a source of fat in infant formulas for health reasons.
    J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr, 2019 · checked 2026-09-23
18. pmo-b5-14 · regulatory decision
    POL-HC-7119 Formulated palm and oat oil emulsion Helps to eat less. Helps to reduce weight regain after dieting. Non-authorised
    EU Register on nutrition and health claims, claim POL-HC-7119, snapshot 2026-09-21 · checked 2026-09-23
19. pmo-b5-15 · regulatory decision
    POL-HC-6216 Beta-palmitate Beta-palmitate enrichment contributes to increase calcium absorption -/- Non-authorised
    EU Register on nutrition and health claims, claim POL-HC-6216, snapshot 2026-09-21 · checked 2026-09-23
20. plmo-c4-08 · meta-analysis of RCTs
    the results indicated that RPO reduced the risk of VAD (relative risk (RR) (95% confidence interval (CI)) = 0.55 (0.37, 0.82), p = 0.003), increasedserum retinol levels in both children (p < 0.00001) and adults (p = 0.002), and increased β-carotene levels (p = 0.01). ... The results also showed that low level of PRO intake (≤8 g RPO) could increase serum retinol concentrations whereas PRO intake above 8 g did not lead to further increase of serum retinol concentrations.
    Nutrients, 2017 · checked 2026-09-23
21. plmo-c4-09 · RCT
    A significantly lower proportion of women in the red palm oil group than in the control group had vitamin A deficiency (serum retinol levels < 0.7 mumol/L) after intervention (1.5% vs. 9.7%). The proportion of women having anemia was significantly lower (p < .01) in the red palm oil-supplemented group (80.6%) than in the control group (96.7%).
    Food Nutr Bull, 2003 · checked 2026-09-23
22. plmo-c4-10 · meta-analysis
    Absorption of fat and calcium was higher, the Ca(2+) of fecal excretion was lower when the infant formula provided palmitic acid at the Sn-2 positions or without palmitic acid than that determined when formula containing palmitic acid at the Sn-1 and Sn-3 positions was given (P < 0.01).
    Zhonghua Er Ke Za Zhi, 2009 · checked 2026-09-23
23. plmo-c4-11 · position paper
    PO is associated with harder stools and SN-2-palmitate use may lead to softer stool consistency. ... There is insufficient evidence to suggest that PO should be avoided as a source of fat in infant formulas for health reasons.
    J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr, 2019 · checked 2026-09-23
24. pmo-b5-05 · RCT
    A total of 170 women were recruited at 16 to 24 weeks of gestation and randomly assigned to an experimental group that received red palm oil ... A significantly lower proportion of women in the red palm oil group than in the control group had vitamin A deficiency (serum retinol levels < 0.7 mumol/L) after intervention (1.5% vs. 9.7%).
    Food Nutr Bull, 2003 · checked 2026-09-23
25. pmo-b5-07 · meta-analysis of RCTs
    Thirteen articles were included. ... CONCLUSION: Absorption of fat and calcium was lower, the Ca(2+) of fecal excretion was higher, the BMC was reduced, the incidence of hard stools increased when the infant formula provided the palmitic acid at the Sn-1 and Sn-3 positions as compared with using formula contained palmitic acid at the Sn-2 positions or without palmitic acid.
    Zhonghua Er Ke Za Zhi, 2009 · checked 2026-09-23
26. pmo-b5-11 · RCT
    Out of 299 women, 151 were randomized into the TRF arm and 148 into the placebo arm. ... (4/151 or 2.6% in the TRF arm vs. 11/148 or 7.4% in the placebo arm, p = 0.058) ... With TRF supplementation, the relative risk (RR) of PIH was 0.36 (95% CI 0.12-1.09).
    Acta Medica (Hradec Kralove), 2013 · checked 2026-09-23
27. plmo-c4-03 · meta-analysis
    A total of 11 articles involving 547 participants met the inclusion criteria. The pooled analysis revealed that palm oil increased the concentration of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (WMD: 0.15 mmol/L; p<0.00001). Palm oil consumption had no significant effects on blood total cholesterol (WMD: -0.01 mmol/L; p=0.82) and LDL-c (WMD: -0.05mmol/L; p=0.10)
    Asia Pac J Clin Nutr, 2019 · checked 2026-09-23
28. plmo-c4-06 · systematic review
    Our search retrieved 2,738 citations for stroke with one included study and 1,777 citations for coronary heart disease (CHD) with four included studies. ... The evidence for the outcomes of this review were all graded as very low.
    PLoS One, 2018 · checked 2026-09-23
29. pmo-b5-03 · meta-analysis of RCTs
    A total of 11 articles involving 547 participants met the inclusion criteria. The pooled analysis revealed that palm oil increased the concentration of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (WMD: 0.15 mmol/L; p<0.00001). Palm oil consumption had no significant effects on blood total cholesterol (WMD: -0.01 mmol/L; p=0.82) and LDL-c (WMD: -0.05mmol/L; p=0.10)
    Asia Pac J Clin Nutr, 2019 · checked 2026-09-23
30. pmo-b5-09 · systematic review of observational studies
    Our search retrieved 2,738 citations for stroke with one included study and 1,777 citations for coronary heart disease (CHD) with four included studies. ... The evidence for the outcomes of this review were all graded as very low. ... The present review could not establish strong evidence for or against palm oil consumption relating to cardiovascular disease risk and cardiovascular disease-specific mortality.
    PLoS One, 2018 · checked 2026-09-23
31. pmo-b5-10 · RCT
    Twenty-one healthy normocholesterolemic young adults, men and women, completed a randomized 30-d/30-d crossover comparison of the effect of palmolein and olive oil on plasma lipids. ... plasma total and low-density-lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol were almost identical with the two oils ... Palmolein is rich in vitamin E, alpha-tocopherol, and especially tocotrienols, but the latter were barely detectable in plasma.
    Am J Clin Nutr, 1995 · checked 2026-09-23