Cod vs salmon: the fat carries the vitamin D, the iodine goes the other way

A meta-analysis of randomized trials in 640 people, with data up to 2014, found that eating fatty fish such as salmon raised blood vitamin D by 6.8 nmol/L (95% CI 3.7 to 9.9). Lean fish such as cod gave 1.9 nmol/L, a result that did not reach significance (95% CI -2.3 to 6.0). The composition tables show why the two fish behave so differently. UK tables, which give averages without a range, list raw farmed salmon at 15.0 g of fat per 3.5 oz (100 g) against 0.6 g in cod. Salmon has 3.25 g of omega-3 fat against 0.08 g, and 4.7 mcg of vitamin D where cod has only a trace. Cod wins on iodine, 196 mcg against 12 mcg per 3.5 oz (100 g), though across eight USDA cod samples the iodine ranged about fifteenfold, from 23 to 361 mcg. A regular fillet of either fish in the US dietary survey weighs 4.9 oz (140 g). In a 4-week trial in 38 healthy young adults eating 26 oz (750 g) a week, salmon lowered fasting triglycerides and raised HDL cholesterol against lean meat while cod did not, and the abstract gives no sizes for either change.

How much is actually in it

• Per 100 g raw flesh, farmed salmon has about 25 times the fat and nearly three times the energy of cod, with slightly more protein. — raw flesh, UK composition tables Evidence C source
  Fat 0.6 g vs 15.0 g, energy 75 vs 217 calories, protein 17.5 vs 20.4 g per 3.5 oz (100 g) (cod vs farmed salmon)
• Farmed salmon carries about 40 times more omega-3 fat per 3.5 oz (100 g) than cod, while cod carries about 16 times more iodine. — raw flesh, UK composition tables Evidence C source
  N-3 PUFA 0.08 g vs 3.25 g, iodine 196 vs 12 ug, vitamin D trace vs 4.7 ug, vitamin B12 1.5 vs 4.4 ug, selenium 23 vs 18 ug per 3.5 oz (100 g) (cod vs farmed salmon)
• In USDA samples, Atlantic cod held 0.49 to 0.95 g fat per 3.5 oz (100 g) and farmed Atlantic salmon 10.4 to 16.0 g, and the iodine in cod ranged fifteenfold between samples. — 8 samples each, raw, USDA Foundation Foods (n = 8) Evidence C source
  Fat 0.67 g (0.49-0.95) vs 13.1 g (10.44-16.04); DHA 0.054 g vs 0.585 g; EPA 0.018 g vs 0.318 g; cod iodine 113.7 ug (23.4-360.8)

What a real portion looks like

• In the US dietary survey a regular fillet of baked cod or grilled salmon weighs 4.9 oz (140 g) and a large fillet 210 g. — US survey portions, FNDDS Evidence C source
  1 small/regular fillet 140 g, 1 large fillet 210 g, 1 oz yields 20 g for both fish

What your body absorbs

• In 13 healthy women, intact salmon raised blood EPA and DHA more than the same fish minced or defatted with its oil added back. — healthy female participants, postprandial crossover, 6 h sampling (n = 13) Evidence B source
  Plasma EPA and DHA significantly higher after intact salmon (covariate analysis p < 0.001)
• In a crossover trial in 21 young women with low iron stores, adding salmon to a phytate-rich bean meal raised non-heme iron absorption (p < 0.001). — 21 young women with ferritin < 30 ug/L, stable isotope labeled meals (n = 21) Evidence B source
  Iron absorption significantly higher with fish (p < 0.001); size of increase not given in the abstract
• Over 2 weeks, 600 mg DHA a day from cooked salmon raised plasma DHA by about 80% in 32 adults, the same as algal-oil capsules. — 32 healthy men and women aged 20 to 65, 2 weeks (n = 32) Evidence B source
  DHA up about 80% in plasma phospholipids and about 25% in erythrocytes in both groups

What cooking and storage change

• Baking keeps 90% of vitamin B12 in lean fish such as cod and 85% in fatty fish such as salmon, while minerals stay at 100%. — finfish group, baked without drippings, lean (<5% fat) vs fatty (>5% fat) Evidence C source
  B12 retained 90% vs 85%, thiamin 90% vs 95%, folate 90% vs 90%, minerals 100%
• FDA guidance says parasites in fish meant to be eaten raw are killed by freezing at -20°C (-4°F) or below for 7 days, or at -35°C (-31°F) until solid and then 15 hours, and that heating fish enough to kill bacteria also kills parasites. — fish intended to be eaten raw or undercooked (US seafood industry guidance) Evidence E source
  -4 °F (-20°C) for 7 days, or -31 °F (-35°C) until solid plus 15 hours at -31 °F (-35°C), or plus 24 hours at -4 °F (-20°C), kills parasites

What it does to your health

• A meta-analysis of RCTs found fatty fish raised blood vitamin D by 6.8 nmol/L, while lean fish gave a non-significant 1.9 nmol/L. — 640 subjects, 14 study groups, RCTs to February 2014 (n = 640) Evidence A source
  Fatty fish MD 6.8 nmol/L (95% CI 3.7 to 9.9); lean fish MD 1.9 nmol/L (95% CI -2.3 to 6.0)
• In 38 healthy adults eating 26 oz (750 g) a week for 4 weeks, salmon lowered triglycerides and raised HDL against lean meat, and cod did not. — 38 young healthy normal-weight adults, 750 g/week at dinner, 4 weeks (n = 38) Evidence B source
  Salmon reduced fasting TAG and raised HDL-cholesterol vs lean meat, and raised HDL vs cod; size not given in the abstract
• Over 6 months in 161 adults, 300 g a week of salmon lowered CRP by about 0.5 mg/L against dietary advice alone, and the 0.4 mg/L fall with cod had an interval reaching zero. — 161 adults, dietary advice plus 300 g/week salmon or cod, 6 months (n = 161) Evidence B source
  CRP salmon -0.5 mg/L (95% CI -0.9 to -0.2), cod -0.4 mg/L (95% CI -0.7 to 0.0)
• In 63 adults with overweight, 26 oz (750 g) of cod a week for 8 weeks lowered the immune marker neopterin by 2.65 nmol/L, and the same amount of salmon did not. — 63 adults with overweight or obesity, 750 g/week Atlantic cod or salmon, 8 weeks (n = 63) Evidence B source
  Neopterin cod median -2.65 nmol/l (IQR -3.68 to -0.45, P = 0.018); salmon 0.00 (P = 0.59); serum selenium rose only after cod (P = 0.017)
• In an 8-week trial at 750 g a week, neither cod nor salmon changed serum cholesterol or triglycerides in adults with overweight, though both shifted gut bacteria. — adults with overweight or obesity, 750 g/week cod or salmon vs no fish, 8 weeks; 65 in serum analyses (n = 65) Evidence B source
  No change in serum cholesterol, TAG, NEFA or bile acids; gut microbiota profile shifted
• In 120 young women over an autumn, salmon sausage cut the fall in vitamin D to 4.3 vs 15.0 nmol/L, and smoked salmon did not differ from control. — 120 non-obese women aged 20 to 25, smoked salmon 25 g/day or salmon sausage 100 g/day, 8 weeks (n = 120) Evidence B source
  25(OH)D change -4.3 (sausage) vs -15.0 nmol/L (control), p < 0.05; smoked salmon vs control p > 0.05

Safety, limits and interactions

• Across 83 studies, Anisakis larvae were found in 33% of cod but 5% of Atlantic salmon, and farmed fish were least infected at 2%. — commercial fish from countries supplying Belgium, 83 studies Evidence C source
  Mean prevalence cod 33%, Atlantic salmon 5%, farmed fish 2%
• FDA monitoring found about five times more mercury in cod than in fresh or frozen salmon. — FDA market samples 1991-2010 (n = 209) Evidence E source
  Mean mercury cod 0.111 ppm (115 samples), salmon fresh/frozen 0.022 ppm (94 samples)

What people believe that the data does not support

• The EU did not authorize the claim that salmon oil supports normal blood cholesterol. — EU health claims register Evidence E source
  Status non-authorized
• The EU did not authorize the claim that omega-3 from cod liver oil keeps joints flexible and mobile. — EU health claims register Evidence E source
  Status non-authorized

Who this works differently for

• In 63 adults eating 26 oz (750 g) of fish a week for 8 weeks in a Norwegian autumn, vitamin D fell in every group but fell less with salmon than with cod. — 63 adults with overweight or obesity, south-western Norway, 60 degrees north, 8 weeks (n = 63) Evidence B source
  Smaller drop in serum 25(OH)D3 with salmon vs cod (P = 0.013) and vs control (P = 0.0060)
• FDA and EPA list both cod and salmon as Best Choices and advise 2 to 3 servings a week for people who are or may become pregnant. — people who might become or are pregnant or breastfeeding, children Evidence E source
  Both fish on the Best Choices list
• In 137 pregnant women, 14 oz (400 g) of cod a week for 16 weeks left hair mercury similar to habitual diet, 554 vs 485 ug/kg. — pregnant women in Norway, gestational week 20 to 36, 16 weeks (n = 137) Evidence B source
  Hair mercury median 554 (392-805) vs 485 (341-740) ug/kg, p = 0.186
• Two 200 g cod meals a week in pregnancy left urinary iodine at 98 ug/L against 73 ug/L in controls, but infants of the cod group scored lower on a cognitive composite. — pregnant women in Bergen, Norway, 200 g cod twice a week, 16 weeks (n = 122) Evidence B source
  UIC median 98 vs 73 ug/L (p = 0.028); lower Bayley-III cognitive composite (p = 0.045)
• In 205 preschool children, salmon meals three times a week for 16 weeks did not change IQ scale scores compared with meat meals. — children aged 4 to 6, farmed Atlantic salmon vs meat three times weekly, 16 weeks (n = 205) Evidence B source
  No difference in WPPSI-III scale scores; 2 of 8 raw subtest scores better with salmon
• In 70 children with cod allergy, a year of daily cod oral immunotherapy desensitized 43% vs 11% on placebo and reduced IgE cross-reactivity to salmon. — children aged 2 to 10 in Hong Kong with challenge-confirmed cod allergy, 52 weeks (n = 70) Evidence B source
  Desensitization 43% vs 11%, risk difference 32% (95% CI 9% to 51%)
• FDA advises pregnant women to avoid refrigerated smoked seafood, such as salmon or cod labeled nova-style, lox, kippered or smoked, unless it is in a cooked dish such as a casserole. Canned or shelf-stable smoked seafood is okay. — Pregnant women (n = -) Evidence E source
  Avoid refrigerated smoked seafood unless in a cooked dish, canned or shelf-stable is okay

What is still unknown

• Pooled cohort data link the highest lean fish intake with 19% lower stroke risk, while the fatty fish estimate of 12% lower crossed no effect, from only five studies. — five prospective cohort studies, highest vs lowest intake Evidence C source
  RR fatty fish 0.88 (95% CI 0.74 to 1.04); lean fish 0.81 (95% CI 0.67 to 0.99)

The bottom line

The heart picture beyond that one small trial is thin. Over 6 months in 161 adults, adding 300 g a week of salmon to dietary advice lowered the blood marker CRP by 0.5 mg/L (95% CI -0.9 to -0.2), and cod lowered it by 0.4 mg/L with an interval that reached zero (-0.7 to 0.0). In an 8-week trial in adults with overweight eating 26 oz (750 g) a week, neither fish changed serum cholesterol or triglycerides in the 65 people analyzed. Pooled cohort data from only five studies link the highest lean fish intake with 19% lower stroke risk (RR 0.81, 95% CI 0.67 to 0.99). For fatty fish the 12% estimate crossed no effect (0.74 to 1.04). That is association from too few studies to say whether either fish changes stroke risk at all. How you eat the salmon makes some difference. After a single meal in 13 healthy women, intact salmon raised blood EPA and DHA more than the other versions tested (p < 0.001). Over 2 weeks in an open-label trial in 32 adults, 600 mg of DHA a day from cooked salmon raised plasma DHA by about 80%, the same as algal-oil capsules. In 120 young women through 8 weeks of autumn, vitamin D fell in every group, by 4.3 nmol/L with 100 g a day of a salmon sausage against 15.0 nmol/L in controls. 25 g a day of smoked salmon made no significant difference, and both products supplied about 5 mcg of vitamin D a day. In 21 young women with low iron stores, adding salmon to a bean meal raised iron absorption (p < 0.001), and the abstract does not say by how much. Baking keeps about 90% of vitamin B12 in lean fish and 85% in fatty fish, by USDA factors from a 1975 table set for whole groups of fish. Who should take care. Cod allergy is real in children. In 70 Hong Kong children aged 2 to 10 with confirmed cod allergy, a year of supervised daily cod immunotherapy desensitized 43% against 11% on placebo (risk difference 32%, 95% CI 9% to 51%), with only laboratory evidence of less cross-reaction to salmon. It was treatment under medical supervision and gives no license to feed cod to an allergic child at home. Across 83 studies of fish sold in Belgium, Anisakis larvae turned up in 33% of cod and 5% of Atlantic salmon, and farmed fish were least infected at 2% though still not free of them. The figure counts larvae in fish rather than cases of illness, and a low share is not zero. This page has no card on how raw, cured or cold-smoked fish is made safe from these larvae, so nothing here supports eating either fish raw. FDA samples from 1991 to 2010 averaged 0.111 ppm of mercury in cod and 0.022 ppm in fresh or frozen salmon. FDA and EPA put both fish on their Best Choices list and advise 2 to 3 servings a week from it for people who are or may become pregnant or are breastfeeding. The smoked salmon result above is about vitamin D in 120 young women, and this page has no card on whether chilled smoked fish is safe to eat in pregnancy. The pregnancy trials from Norway are reassuring on mercury and mixed on the rest. In 137 pregnant women, 14 oz (400 g) of cod a week for 16 weeks left hair mercury close to habitual diet, a median 554 against 485 mcg/kg (p = 0.186), and 8% of women in both groups were above the US Environmental Protection Agency reference dose. In a Bergen trial of two 200 g cod meals a week for 16 weeks, urinary iodine ended at a median 98 mcg/L against 73 mcg/L in controls. The infants of the cod group scored lower on a cognitive composite (p = 0.045), a secondary result the authors say needs checking, so this trial does not show that extra cod in pregnancy is free of trade-offs. In 205 preschool children, salmon meals three times a week for 16 weeks did not change IQ scale scores compared with meat meals. Two oil claims failed in the EU register. One said a salmon oil product supports normal blood cholesterol, the other that omega-3 from marine oils such as cod liver oil keeps joints flexible. Both were refused, the register gives no reason, and neither is about eating the fillet.

Sources

1. cdsl-daily-r4-01 · CoFID 2021 dataset
   Cod, flesh only, raw (CoFID 16-372): fat 0.6 g, energy 75 kcal, protein 17.5 g per 100 g; Salmon, farmed, flesh only, raw (CoFID 16-356): fat 15.0 g, energy 217 kcal, protein 20.4 g per 100 g
   CoFID 2021, Public Health England, codes 16-372 and 16-356 · checked 2026-10-03
2. cdsl-daily-r4-02 · CoFID 2021 dataset
   Cod, flesh only, raw (CoFID 16-372): n-3 poly 0.08 g, iodine 196 ug, vitamin D Tr, vitamin B12 1.5 ug, selenium 23 ug per 100 g; Salmon, farmed, flesh only, raw (CoFID 16-356): n-3 poly 3.25 g, iodine 12 ug, vitamin D 4.7 ug, vitamin B12 4.4 ug, selenium 18 ug per 100 g
   CoFID 2021, Public Health England, codes 16-372 and 16-356 · checked 2026-10-03
3. cdsl-daily-r4-03 · USDA FoodData Central Foundation Foods, release 2026-04-30
   Fish, cod, Atlantic, wild caught, raw: Total lipid 0.6675 g (0.49-0.95, 8 samples), DHA 0.054 g (0.027-0.085), EPA 0.018 g (0.007-0.03), Iodine 113.7 ug (23.38-360.8, 8 samples); Fish, salmon, Atlantic, farm raised, raw: Total lipid 13.11 g (10.44-16.04, 8 samples), DHA 0.585 g (0.488-0.739), EPA 0.318 g (0.228-0.43)
   USDA FoodData Central, Foundation Foods, release 2026-04-30 · checked 2026-10-03
4. cdsl-daily-r4-08 · USDA FNDDS
   Fish, cod, baked or broiled (FNDDS 26109120): 1 small/regular fillet 140 g, 1 large fillet 210 g; Fish, salmon, grilled (FNDDS 26137123): 1 small/regular fillet 140 g, 1 large fillet 210 g
   USDA FNDDS, FDC 2706241 and 2706287 · checked 2026-10-03
5. cdsl-daily-r4-04 · randomized crossover trial
   showed that plasma concentration of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) were significantly higher after participants consumed intact salmon compared to the other meals (covariate analysis p < 0.001).
   Food Funct, 2021 · checked 2026-10-03
6. cdsl-daily-r4-05 · randomized crossover trial
   The addition of fish to the bean meal significantly increased (p < 0.001) iron absorption.
   J Am Coll Nutr, 2008 · checked 2026-10-03
7. cdsl-daily-r4-06 · randomized controlled trial
   DHA levels increased by approximately 80% in plasma phospholipids and by approximately 25% in erythrocytes in both groups.
   J Am Diet Assoc, 2008 · checked 2026-10-03
8. cdsl-daily-r4-07 · USDA Table of Nutrient Retention Factors, Release 6 (2007)
   USDA-RETN-R6:2301 FINFISH,<5%FAT,BAKED,WO/DRIPPINGS: vitamin_b12 90%, thiamin 90%, folate 90%, minerals 100%; USDA-RETN-R6:2451 FINFISH,>5%FAT,BAKED,WO/DRIPPINGS: vitamin_b12 85%, thiamin 95%, folate 90%, minerals 100%
   USDA Table of Nutrient Retention Factors, Release 6, 2007, codes 2301 and 2451 · checked 2026-10-03
9. sf-fpf-r1-4 · agency advice
   Freezing and storing at an ambient temperature of -4°F (-20°C) or below for 7 days (total time), or freezing at an ambient temperature of -31°F (-35°C) or below until solid and storing at an ambient temperature of -31°F (-35°C) or below for 15 hours, or freezing at an ambient temperature of -31°F (-35°C) or below until solid and storing at an ambient temperature of -4°F (-20°C) or below for 24 hours are sufficient to kill parasites. ... The process of heating raw fish sufficiently to kill bacterial pathogens is also sufficient to kill parasites.
   FDA, Fish and Fishery Products Hazards and Controls Guidance, Chapter 5: Parasites · checked 2026-10-08
10. cdsl-daily-r4-09 · meta-analysis
    the consumption of fatty fish resulted in a mean difference of 6.8 nmol/L (95% CI: 3.7, 9.9 nmol/L; P < 0.0001, I(2) = 0%; 7 study groups), whereas for lean fish the mean difference was 1.9 nmol/L (95% CI: -2.3, 6.0 nmol/L; P < 0.38, I(2) = 37%; 7 study groups).
    Am J Clin Nutr, 2015 · checked 2026-10-03
11. cdsl-daily-r4-11 · randomized controlled trial
    High intake of fatty fish, but not lean fish, significantly reduced TAG and increased HDL-cholesterol concentrations in fasting serum when compared with lean meat intake. When compared with lean fish intake, fatty fish intake increased serum HDL-cholesterol.
    Br J Nutr, 2016 · checked 2026-10-03
12. cdsl-daily-r4-12 · randomized controlled trial
    Serum CRP concentrations were lower in the salmon (-0.5 mg/L; 95% CI -0.9, -0.2) and cod (-0.4 mg/L; 95% CI -0.7, 0.0) groups compared with the DA group.
    J Nutr, 2010 · checked 2026-10-03
13. cdsl-daily-r4-13 · randomized controlled trial
    Serum total neopterin concentration was reduced in the Cod group (median change - 2.65 (25th, 75th percentiles - 3.68, - 0.45) nmol/l, P = 0.018) but not in the Salmon group (median change 0.00 (25th, 75th percentiles - 4.15, 3.05) nmol/l, P = 0.59) when compared with the Control group after 8 weeks.
    Eur J Nutr, 2021 · checked 2026-10-03
14. cdsl-daily-r4-14 · randomized controlled trial
    A high intake of cod or salmon fillet modulated gut microbiota but did not affect faecal output or serum concentrations of lipids and total bile acids.
    Eur J Nutr, 2021 · checked 2026-10-03
15. cdsl-daily-r4-23 · randomized controlled trial
    While all groups experienced a decrease in 25(OH)D serum concentrations, the decrease was significantly smaller in the salmon sausage group compared to the control group (-4.3 vs. -15.0 nmol/L, p < 0.05), and no significant difference was observed between the smoked salmon and control group after 8 weeks (p > 0.05).
    Nutrients, 2024 · checked 2026-10-03
16. cdsl-daily-r4-16 · systematic review
    Cod (Gadus morhua) and Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), the most consumed fish species in Belgium, have a mean prevalence of 33% and 5% respectively. ... Farmed fish were found to be the least infected (2%) but were still not Anisakidae free.
    Int J Food Microbiol, 2020 · checked 2026-10-03
17. cdsl-daily-r4-17 · agency monitoring table
    COD | 0.111 | 0.066 | 0.152 | ND | 0.989 | 115 | FDA 1991-2010 ... SALMON (FRESH/FROZEN) | 0.022 | 0.015 | 0.034 | ND | 0.19 | 94 | FDA 1991-2009
    U.S. FDA, Mercury Levels in Commercial Fish and Shellfish (1990-2012) · checked 2026-10-03
18. cdsl-daily-r4-24 · EU claims register
    POL-HC-7853 Pure salmon oil 500 mg. D alpha tocopherol10 mg.-cps Supports the normal level of blood cholesterol. Non-authorised
    EU Register on nutrition and health claims, claim POL-HC-7853, snapshot 2026-09-21 · checked 2026-10-03
19. cdsl-daily-r4-25 · EU claims register
    POL-HC-7569 Marine oils such as cod liver oil and fish oil containing eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA : C20:5 n-3) + docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; C22:6 n-3) or long-chain n-3 (omega 3) polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC n-3 PUFA, LC omega 3 PUFA) or ‘Omega 3’ Long-chain Omega 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids help maintain healthy, flexible, mobile and supple joints Non-authorised
    EU Register on nutrition and health claims, claim POL-HC-7569, snapshot 2026-09-21 · checked 2026-10-03
20. cdsl-daily-r4-10 · randomized controlled trial
    Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 concentration was decreased in all groups after 8 weeks; however, the reduction in the Salmon group was significantly smaller compared with the Cod group (P = 0·013) and the Control group (P = 0·0060).
    Br J Nutr, 2020 · checked 2026-10-03
21. cdsl-daily-r4-18 · agency advice
    Eat 2 to 3 servings a week from the "Best Choices" list
    U.S. FDA and EPA, Advice about Eating Fish, 2021 · checked 2026-10-03
22. cdsl-daily-r4-19 · randomized controlled trial
    Post-intervention, the intervention group had median (inter-quartile range) THHg concentrations of 554 (392-805) µg/kg, and the control group 485 (341-740) µg/kg (p = 0.186).
    Environ Int, 2020 · checked 2026-10-03
23. cdsl-daily-r4-20 · randomized controlled trial
    Postintervention UIC was higher in the intervention group (n = 61) [median (interquartile range, IQR) 98 (64-145) μg/L], compared with control (n = 61) [median (IQR) 73 (52-120) μg/L] (p = 0.028), also after adjusting for baseline UIC (p = 0.048). Infants of mothers in the intervention group had a lower cognitive composite score on the Bayley-III compared with the control group (p = 0.045).
    Thyroid, 2021 · checked 2026-10-03
24. cdsl-daily-r4-21 · randomized controlled trial
    In general linear models no significant differences between the intervention groups were found in the scale scores of the WPPSI-III tests and the 9-HPT.
    Clin Nutr, 2019 · checked 2026-10-03
25. cdsl-daily-r4-22 · randomized controlled trial
    At the week 52 end-of-treatment challenges, 15 (43%) OIT participants versus 4 (11%) placebo achieved desensitization (risk difference 32%, 95% CI 9%-51%; p = 0.003) ... immunological evidence of reduced cross-reactivity to salmon and catfish allergens.
    Allergy, 2026 · checked 2026-10-03
26. sf-lrs-r3-1 · agency advice
    Refrigerated smoked seafood - unless it's in a cooked dish, such as a casserole. Refrigerated smoked seafood, such as salmon, trout, whitefish, cod, tuna, or mackerel, is most often labeled as "nova-style," "lox," "kippered," "smoked," or "jerky." ... Canned or shelf-stable smoked seafood. ... Pregnant women are about 10 times more likely to get listeriosis than other healthy adults.
    US FDA, Listeria (Food Safety for Moms-to-Be) · checked 2026-10-08
27. cdsl-daily-r4-15 · meta-analysis of cohorts
    Compared with the highest category of intake with lowest category, the summary relative risk was 0.88 [95% confidence interval (CI), 0.74-1.04] for fatty fish intake and 0.81 (95% CI, 0.67-0.99) for lean fish intake.
    Lipids Health Dis, 2018 · checked 2026-10-03